Water resources

Surface, ground, and rainwater used for ecological and human use.

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Improve Rice Production

Submitted by Drawdown Admin on Sat, 02/15/2025 - 15:02

Sector

Food, Agriculture, Land & Ocean (FALO)

Mode

Cut Emissions

Cluster

Shift Agriculture Practices

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Summary

Rice production is a significant source of methane emissions and a minor source of nitrous oxide emissions. Most rice production occurs in flooded fields called paddies, where anaerobic conditions trigger high levels of methane production. This solution includes two related practices that each reduce emissions from paddy rice production: noncontinuous flooding and nutrient management. Noncontinuous flooding is a water management technique that reduces the amount of time rice paddy soils spend fully saturated, thereby reducing methane. Unfortunately, noncontinuous flooding increases nitrous oxide emissions. Nutrient management helps to address this challenge by controlling the timing, amount, and type of fertilization to maximize plant uptake and minimize nitrous oxide emissions.

Overview

Rice is a staple crop of critical importance, occupying 11% of global cropland (FAOstat 2025). Rice production has higher GHG emissions than most crop production, accounting for 9% of all anthropogenic methane and 10% of cropland nitrous oxide (Wang et al., 2020). Nabuurs et al. (2022) found methane emissions from global rice production to be 0.8–1.0 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr and growing 0.4% annually.

Rice paddy systems are fields with berms and plumbing to permit the flooding of rice for the production periods, which helps with weed and pest control (rice thrives in flooded conditions, though it does not require them). Paddy rice is the main source of methane from rice production. Upland rice is grown outside of paddies and does not produce significant methane emissions, so we excluded it from this analysis. Irrigated paddies are provided with irrigation water, while rain-fed paddies are only filled by rainfall and runoff (Raffa, 2021). For this analysis, we considered both irrigated and rain-fed paddies.

Methane Reduction

Flooded rice paddies encourage the production of methane by microbes. Conventional paddy rice production uses continuous flooding, in which the paddy is flooded for the full rice production period. Several approaches can reduce methane, with the most widespread being noncontinuous flooding. This is a collection of practices (such as alternate wetting and drying) that drain the fields one or more times during the rice production period. As a result, the paddy spends less time in its methane-producing state. This can be done without reducing rice yields in many, but not all, cases, and also significantly reduces irrigation water use (Bo et al., 2022). Impacts on yields depend on soils, climate, and other variables (Cheng et al., 2022).

Nitrous Oxide Reduction

A major drawback to noncontinuous flooding is that it increases nitrous oxide emissions from fertilizer compared to continuous flooding. High nitrogen levels in flooded paddies encourage the growth of bacteria that produce methane, reduce the natural breakdown of methane, and facilitate emissions of nitrous oxide to the atmosphere (Li et al., 2024). The effect is small compared to the mitigated emissions from methane reduction (Jiang et al., 2019), but remains serious. Use of nutrient management techniques, such as controlling fertilizer amount, type (e.g., controlled-release urea), timing, and application techniques (e.g., deep fertilization), can reduce these emissions. This is in part because nitrogen fertilizers are often overapplied, leaving room to increase efficiency without reducing rice yields (Hergoualc’h et al., 2019; Li et al., 2024).

Other Promising Practices

Other practices also show potential but were not included in our analysis. These include the application of biochar to rice paddies and the use of rice cultivars that produce fewer emissions (Qian et al., 2023). Other approaches include saturated soil culture, System of Rice Intensification (“SRI”), ground-cover systems, raised beds, and improved irrigation and paddy infrastructure (Surendran et al., 2021).

Note that some practices, such as incorporating rice straw or the use of compost or manure, can increase nitrous oxide emissions (Li et al., 2024).

There is also evidence that, under some circumstances, noncontinuous flooding can sequester soil organic carbon by increasing soil organic matter. However, there are not enough data available to quantify this (Qian et al., 2023). Indeed, one meta-analysis found that noncontinuous flooding can actually lead to a decrease in soil organic carbon (Livsey et al., 2019). One complication is that many production areas plant rice two or even three times per year, and data are typically presented on a per-harvest or even per-flooded day basis. To overcome this challenge, we use data on the percentage of global irrigated rice land in single, double, and triple cropping from Carlson et al. (2016) to create weighted average values as appropriate.

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Credits

Lead Fellow

Eric Toensmeier

Contributors

Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Yusuf Jameel, Ph.D.
Daniel Jasper
Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

Aiyana Bodi
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Hannah Henkin
Zoltan Nagy, Ph.D.
Ted Otte
Paul C. West, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

Methane Reduction

We calculated per-hectare methaneemissions using Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology (Ogle et. al, 2019). To develop regional emissions per rice harvest, we multiplied standard regional daily baseline emissions by standard cultivation period lengths, then multiplied by the mean scaling factor for noncontinuous flooding systems. However, the total number of rice harvests per year ranged from one to three. Carlson et al. (2016) reported a global figure of harvests on rice fields: 42% were harvested once, 50% were harvested twice, and 8% were harvested three times. We used this to develop a weighted average methane emissions figure for each region. National effectiveness ranged from 1.55 to 3.29 t CO₂‑eq /ha/yr (Table 1a).

Nitrous Oxide Reduction

Using data from Adalibieke et al. (2024) and Gerber et al. (2024), we calculated the current country-level rate of nitrogen application per hectare and a target rate reflecting improved efficiency through nutrient management. For a full methodology, see the Appendix.

In noncontinuously flooded systems, nitrous oxide emissions are 1.66 times higher per t of nitrogen applied (Hergoualc’h et al., 2019). Using the different emissions factors, we calculated total nitrous oxide emissions for 1) flooded rice with current nitrogen application rates, and 2) noncontinuously flooded rice with target nitrogen application rates.

The effectiveness of nutrient management for each country with over 100,000 ha of rice production ranged from –0.48 to 0.11 t CO₂‑eq /ha/yr (Table 1).

Combined Reduction

Combined effectiveness of methane and nitrous oxide reduction was 1.49–3.39 t CO₂‑eq /ha/yr (Table 1).

left_text_column_width

Table 1a. Combined effectiveness at reducing emissions, by country, for noncontinuous flooding with nutrient management.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /ha/yr

Afghanistan	1.63
Argentina	2.70
Bangladesh	1.63
Benin	2.30
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	2.70
Brazil	2.70
Burkina Faso	2.30
Cambodia	2.13
Cameroon	2.30
Chad	2.30
China	2.48
Colombia	2.70
Côte d'Ivoire	2.30
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	2.48
Democratic Republic of the Congo	2.30
Dominican Republic	2.70
Ecuador	2.70
Egypt	2.30
Ghana	2.30
Guinea	2.30
Guinea-Bissau	2.30
Guyana	2.70
India	1.63
Indonesia	2.13
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	3.29
Italy	3.29
Japan	2.48
Lao People's Democratic Republic	2.13
Liberia	2.30
Madagascar	2.30
Malaysia	2.13
Mali	2.30
Mozambique	2.30
Myanmar	2.13
Nepal	1.63
Nigeria	2.30
Pakistan	1.63
Paraguay	2.70
Peru	2.70
Philippines	2.13
Republic of Korea	2.48
Russian Federation	3.29
Senegal	2.30
Sierra Leone	2.30
Sri Lanka	1.63
Thailand	2.13
Turkey	3.29
Uganda	2.70
United Republic of Tanzania	2.30
United States of America	1.55
Uruguay	2.70
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	2.70
Vietnam	2.13

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /ha/yr

Afghanistan	0.03
Argentina	0.07
Bangladesh	0.06
Benin	0.03
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	0.00
Brazil	0.00
Burkina Faso	–0.02
Cambodia	0.01
Cameroon	0.00
Chad	0.01
China	0.01
Colombia	–0.07
Côte d'Ivoire	0.02
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	0.02
Democratic Republic of the Congo	0.01
Dominican Republic	–0.16
Ecuador	–0.08
Egypt	–0.15
Ghana	0.05
Guinea	0.01
Guinea-Bissau	0.01
Guyana	–0.06
India	–0.02
Indonesia	0.11
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	–0.05
Italy	0.00
Japan	0.07
Lao People's Democratic Republic	0.02
Liberia	0.02
Madagascar	0.00
Malaysia	–0.01
Mali	–0.03
Mozambique	0.01
Myanmar	0.04
Nepal	0.04
Nigeria	0.01
Pakistan	–0.04
Paraguay	0.01
Peru	0.09
Philippines	0.00
Republic of Korea	0.00
Russian Federation	0.04
Senegal	–0.04
Sierra Leone	0.02
Sri Lanka	0.02
Thailand	–0.03
Turkey	0.10
Uganda	0.00
United Republic of Tanzania	0.04
United States of America	–0.05
Uruguay	0.03
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	–0.48
Vietnam	0.00

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /ha rice paddies/yr

Afghanistan	1.67
Argentina	2.77
Bangladesh	1.69
Benin	2.34
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	2.70
Brazil	2.70
Burkina Faso	2.28
Cambodia	2.15
Cameroon	2.30
Chad	2.32
China	2.48
Colombia	2.63
Côte d'Ivoire	2.32
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	2.50
Democratic Republic of the Congo	2.31
Dominican Republic	2.54
Ecuador	2.62
Egypt	2.16
Ghana	2.35
Guinea	2.32
Guinea-Bissau	2.32
Guyana	2.63
India	1.61
Indonesia	2.24
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	3.24
Italy	3.29
Japan	2.54
Lao People's Democratic Republic	2.15
Liberia	2.32
Madagascar	2.31
Malaysia	2.13
Mali	2.28
Mozambique	2.32
Myanmar	2.17
Nepal	1.67
Nigeria	2.32
Pakistan	1.59
Paraguay	2.71
Peru	2.79
Philippines	2.14
Republic of Korea	2.47
Russian Federation	3.33
Senegal	2.27
Sierra Leone	2.32
Sri Lanka	1.65
Thailand	2.10
Turkey	3.39
Uganda	2.31
United Republic of Tanzania	2.35
United States of America	1.49
Uruguay	2.72
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	2.22
Vietnam	2.13

Left Text Column Width

Table 1b. Combined effectiveness at reducing emissions, by country, for noncontinuous flooding with nutrient management.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /ha rice paddies/yr

Afghanistan	4.75
Argentina	7.85
Bangladesh	4.75
Benin	6.71
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	7.85
Brazil	7.85
Burkina Faso	6.71
Cambodia	6.21
Cameroon	6.71
Chad	6.71
China	7.20
Colombia	7.85
Côte d'Ivoire	6.71
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	7.20
Democratic Republic of the Congo	6.71
Dominican Republic	7.85
Ecuador	7.85
Egypt	6.71
Ghana	6.71
Guinea	6.71
Guinea-Bissau	6.71
Guyana	7.85
India	4.75
Indonesia	6.21
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	9.57
Italy	9.57
Japan	7.20
Lao People's Democratic Republic	6.21
Liberia	6.71
Madagascar	6.71
Malaysia	6.21
Mali	6.71
Mozambique	6.71
Myanmar	6.21
Nepal	4.75
Nigeria	6.71
Pakistan	4.75
Paraguay	7.85
Peru	7.85
Philippines	6.21
Republic of Korea	7.20
Russian Federation	9.57
Senegal	6.71
Sierra Leone	6.71
Sri Lanka	4.75
Thailand	6.21
Turkey	9.57
Uganda	6.71
United Republic of Tanzania	6.71
United States of America	4.51
Uruguay	7.85
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	7.85
Vietnam	6.21

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /ha rice paddies/yr

Afghanistan	0.03
Argentina	0.07
Bangladesh	0.06
Benin	0.03
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	0.00
Brazil	0.00
Burkina Faso	0.02
Cambodia	0.01
Cameroon	0.00
Chad	0.01
China	0.01
Colombia	–0.07
Côte d'Ivoire	0.02
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	0.02
Democratic Republic of the Congo	0.01
Dominican Republic	0.16
Ecuador	–0.08
Egypt	–0.15
Ghana	0.05
Guinea	0.01
Guinea-Bissau	0.01
Guyana	–0.06
India	–0.02
Indonesia	0.11
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	–0.05
Italy	0.00
Japan	0.07
Lao People's Democratic Republic	0.02
Liberia	0.02
Madagascar	0.00
Malaysia	–0.01
Mali	–0.03
Mozambique	0.01
Myanmar	0.04
Nepal	0.04
Nigeria	0.01
Pakistan	–0.04
Paraguay	0.01
Peru	0.09
Philippines	0.00
Republic of Korea	0.00
Russian Federation	0.04
Senegal	–0.04
Sierra Leone	0.02
Sri Lanka	0.02
Thailand	–0.03
Turkey	0.10
Uganda	0.00
United Republic of Tanzania	0.04
United States of America	–0.05
Uruguay	0.03
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	–0.48
Vietnam	0.00

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /ha rice paddies/yr

Afghanistan	4.78
Argentina	7.93
Bangladesh	4.81
Benin	6.74
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	7.85
Brazil	7.85
Burkina Faso	6.68
Cambodia	6.22
Cameroon	6.71
Chad	6.72
China	7.21
Colombia	7.21
Côte d'Ivoire	6.73
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	7.23
Democratic Republic of the Congo	6.71
Dominican Republic	7.69
Ecuador	7.77
Egypt	6.56
Ghana	6.76
Guinea	6.72
Guinea-Bissau	6.72
Guyana	7.79
India	4.73
Indonesia	6.31
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	9.52
Italy	9.57
Japan	7.27
Lao People's Democratic Republic	6.23
Liberia	6.72
Madagascar	6.71
Malaysia	6.20
Mali	6.20
Mozambique	6.72
Myanmar	6.25
Nepal	4.79
Nigeria	6.72
Pakistan	4.71
Paraguay	7.86
Peru	7.95
Philippines	6.21
Republic of Korea	7.20
Russian Federation	9.61
Senegal	6.67
Sierra Leone	6.73
Sri Lanka	4.77
Thailand	6.18
Turkey	9.67
Uganda	6.71
United Republic of Tanzania	6.75
United States of America	4.45
Uruguay	7.88
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	7.38
Vietnam	6.20

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Cost

For conventional paddy rice, we assumed an initial cost of US$0 because many millions of hectares of paddies are already in place (Table 2). We used regional per-hectare average profits from Damania et al. (2024) as the source for net profit per year. Because the initial cost per hectare is US$0, the net cost per hectare is the negative of the per-hectare annual profit.

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Table 2. Net cost and profit of conventional paddy rice by region in 2023.

Unit: US$/ha rice paddies

Africa	0.00
East Asia	0.00
Europe	0.00
North America	0.00
South America	0.00
South Asia	0.00
Southeast Asia	0.00

Unit: US$/ha rice paddies/yr

Africa	457.34
East Asia	543.67
Europe	585.43
North America	356.27
South America	285.69
South Asia	488.85
Southeast Asia	322.13

Unit: US$/ha rice paddies/yr

Africa	-457.34
East Asia	-543.67
Europe	-585.43
North America	-356.27
South America	-285.69
South Asia	-488.85
Southeast Asia	-322.13

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For noncontinuous flooding, we assumed an initial cost of US$0 because no new inputs or changes to paddy infrastructure are required in most cases. Median impact on net profit was an increase of 17% based on nine data points from seven sources. National results are shown in Table 3.

We assumed nutrient management has an initial cost of US$0 because in many cases, nutrient management begins with reducing the overapplication of fertilizer. Here we used the mean value from Gu et al. (2023), a savings of US$507.8/t nitrogen. We used our national-level data on overapplication of nitrogen to calculate savings per hectare. National results are shown in Table 3.

Combined Net Profit per Hectare

Net profit per hectare varies by country due to regional and some country-specific variables. Country-by-country results are shown in Table 3.

Net Net Cost Compared to Conventional Paddy Rice

Net net cost varies by country. Country-by-country results are shown in Table 3.

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Table 3. Net cost and profit of noncontinuous flooding with nutrient management by region.

Unit: US$/ha rice paddies

Afghanistan	0.00
Argentina	0.00
Bangladesh	0.00
Benin	0.00
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	0.00
Brazil	0.00
Burkina Faso	0.00
Cambodia	0.00
Cameroon	0.00
Chad	0.00
China	0.00
Colombia	0.00
Cote d'Ivoire	0.00
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	0.00
Democratic Republic of the Congo	0.00
Dominican Republic	0.00
Ecuador	0.00
Egypt	0.00
Ghana	0.00
Guinea	0.00
Guinea–Bissau	0.00
Guyana	0.00
India	0.00
Indonesia	0.00
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	0.00
Italy	0.00
Japan	0.00
Lao People's Democratic Republic	0.00
Liberia	0.00
Madagascar	0.00
Malaysia	0.00
Mali	0.00
Mozambique	0.00
Myanmar	0.00
Nepal	0.00
Nigeria	0.00
Pakistan	0.00
Paraguay	0.00
Peru	0.00
Philippines	0.00
Republic of Korea	0.00
Russian Federation	0.00
Senegal	0.00
Sierra Leone	0.00
Sri Lanka	0.00
Thailand	0.00
Turkey	0.00
Uganda	0.00
United Republic of Tanzania	0.00
United States of America	0.00
Uruguay	0.00
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	0.00
Vietnam	0.00

Non-continuous flooding and nutrient management.

Unit: US$/ha rice paddies/yr

Afghanistan	573.4
Argentina	354.8
Bangladesh	576.7
Benin	535.1
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	354.1
Brazil	363.4
Burkina Faso	553.3
Cambodia	377.8
Cameroon	543.7
Chad	535.1
China	675.1
Colombia	397.7
Cote d'Ivoire	535.8
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	654.6
Democratic Republic of the Congo	535.6
Dominican Republic	428.4
Ecuador	390.3
Egypt	802.2
Ghana	535.5
Guinea	538.5
Guinea–Bissau	539.2
Guyana	382.0
India	607.9
Indonesia	382.3
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	726.7
Italy	567.9
Japan	636.0
Lao People's Democratic Republic	377.0
Liberia	535.3
Madagascar	535.0
Malaysia	401.2
Mali	561.0
Mozambique	535.5
Myanmar	380.7
Nepal	575.2
Nigeria	537.1
Pakistan	610.0
Paraguay	385.9
Peru	351.7
Philippines	399.5
Republic of Korea	678.2
Russian Federation	475.2
Senegal	569.9
Sierra Leone	535.1
Sri Lanka	591.1
Thailand	407.7
Turkey	694.5
Uganda	543.3
United Republic of Tanzania	537.4
United States of America	490.4
Uruguay	377.6
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	546.2
Vietnam	416.6

Non-continuous flooding and nutrient management.

Unit: US$/ha rice paddies/yr

Afghanistan	-573.4
Argentina	-354.8
Bangladesh	-576.7
Benin	-535.1
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	-354.1
Brazil	-363.4
Burkina Faso	-553.3
Cambodia	-377.8
Cameroon	-543.7
Chad	-535.1
China	-675.1
Colombia	-397.7
Cote d'Ivoire	-535.8
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	-654.6
Democratic Republic of the Congo	-535.6
Dominican Republic	-428.4
Ecuador	-390.3
Egypt	-802.2
Ghana	-535.5
Guinea	-538.5
Guinea–Bissau	-539.2
Guyana	-382.0
India	-607.9
Indonesia	-382.3
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	-726.7
Italy	-567.9
Japan	-636.0
Lao People's Democratic Republic	-377.0
Liberia	-535.3
Madagascar	-535.0
Malaysia	-401.2
Mali	-561.0
Mozambique	-535.5
Myanmar	-380.7
Nepal	-575.2
Nigeria	-537.1
Pakistan	-610.0
Paraguay	-385.9
Peru	-351.7
Philippines	-399.5
Republic of Korea	-678.2
Russian Federation	-475.2
Senegal	-569.9
Sierra Leone	-535.1
Sri Lanka	-591.1
Thailand	-407.7
Turkey	-694.5
Uganda	-543.3
United Republic of Tanzania	-537.4
United States of America	-490.4
Uruguay	-377.6
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	-546.2
Vietnam	-416.6

Non-continuous flooding and nutrient management.

Unit: US$/ha rice paddies/yr

Afghanistan	-1,062
Argentina	-640.5
Bangladesh	-1,065
Benin	-992.4
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	-639.8
Brazil	-649.0
Burkina Faso	-1,010
Cambodia	-699.9
Cameroon	-1,001
Chad	-992.5
China	-1,219
Colombia	-683.4
Cote d'Ivoire	-993.2
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	-1,198
Democratic Republic of the Congo	-992.9
Dominican Republic	-714.1
Ecuador	-676.0
Egypt	-1,387
Ghana	-992.8
Guinea	-995.8
Guinea–Bissau	-996.5
Guyana	-667.7
India	-1,096
Indonesia	-704.5
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	-1,312
Italy	-1,053
Japan	-1,179
Lao People's Democratic Republic	-699.1
Liberia	-992.6
Madagascar	-992.4
Malaysia	-723.3
Mali	-1,018
Mozambique	-992.8
Myanmar	-702.8
Nepal	-1,064
Nigeria	-994.5
Pakistan	-1,098
Paraguay	-671.6
Peru	-637.4
Philippines	-721.6
Republic of Korea	-1,221
Russian Federation	-865.9
Senegal	-1,027
Sierra Leone	-992.4
Sri Lanka	-1,080
Thailand	-729.8
Turkey	-1,279
Uganda	-1,000
United Republic of Tanzania	-994.7
United States of America	-846.7
Uruguay	-663.3
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	-831.9
Vietnam	-738.8

Non-continuous flooding and nutrient management.

Unit: US$/t CO₂‑eq

Afghanistan	-222.1
Argentina	-80.82
Bangladesh	-221.5
Benin	-147.2
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)	-81.49
Brazil	-82.60
Burkina Faso	-151.2
Cambodia	-112.5
Cameroon	-149.3
Chad	-147.7
China	-168.9
Colombia	-87.77
Cote d'Ivoire	-147.6
Democratic People's Republic of Korea	-165.8
Democratic Republic of the Congo	-147.9
Dominican Republic	-92.82
Ecuador	-86.99
Egypt	-211.5
Ghana	-146.9
Guinea	-148.1
Guinea–Bissau	-148.2
Guyana	-85.72
India	-232.1
Indonesia	-111.5
Iran (Islamic Republic of)	-137.8
Italy	-110.0
Japan	-162.2
Lao People's Democratic Republic	-112.2
Liberia	-147.6
Madagascar	-147.9
Malaysia	-116.6
Mali	-152.2
Mozambique	-147.7
Myanmar	-112.4
Nepal	-222.2
Nigeria	-148.0
Pakistan	-233.3
Paraguay	-85.41
Peru	-80.22
Philippines	-116.1
Republic of Korea	-169.7
Russian Federation	-90.08
Senegal	-154.0
Sierra Leone	-147.5
Sri Lanka	-226.3
Thailand	-118.1
Turkey	-132.3
Uganda	-149.1
United Republic of Tanzania	-147.3
United States of America	-190.1
Uruguay	-84.18
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)	-112.7
Vietnam	-119.1

Non-continuous flooding and nutrient management.

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Cost per unit climate impact

The cost per t CO₂‑eq varies by country. Country-by-country results are shown in Table 3. The global weighted average is a savings of US$175.0/t CO₂‑eq (Table 4). Note that this is the same for both 100- and 20-yr results.

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Table 4. Weighted average cost per unit climate impact.

Unit: US$/t CO₂‑eq

Weighted average

-175.0

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Learning Curve

Learning curve data are not available for improved rice cultivation.

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Speed of Action

Speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is different from speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as gradual, emergency brake, or delayed.

The noncontinuous flooding component of Improve Rice Production is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It has a disproportionately fast impact after implementation because it reduces the short-lived climate pollutant methane.

The nutrient management component is a GRADUAL climate solution. It has a steady, linear impact on the atmosphere. The cumulative effect over time builds as a straight line.

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Caveats

Caveats like additionality and permanence do not apply to improve rice production as described here. If its carbon sequestration component were included, those caveats would apply.

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Current Adoption

Noncontinuous Flooding

Rigorous, up-to-date country-level data about the extent of noncontinuous flooding in rice production are in short supply. We found five sources reporting adoption in seven major rice-producing countries. We used these to create regional averages and applied them to all countries that produce more than 100,000 ha of rice (paddy and upland). The total estimated current adoption is 48.65 Mha, or 47% of global rice paddy area (Table 5). This should be considered an extremely rough estimate.

The available sources encompass different forms of noncontinuous flooding, including alternate wetting and drying (Philippines, Vietnam, Bangladesh), mid-season drainage (Japan), or both (China).

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Table 5. Current adoption level (2025).

Unit: Mha

mean

48.65

Noncontinuous flooding, ha installed.

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Nutrient Management

We based nutrient management adoption on our analysis of the overapplication of nitrogen fertilizer on a national basis. Rather than calculate adoption in a parallel way to noncontinuous flooding, this approach provided a national average overapplication rate (the amount of nitrogen fertilizer which is applied that is not needed for crop growth and ends up as nitrous oxide emissions). We assume that every hectare of noncontinuous flooding is also using nutrient management.

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Adoption Trend

We assume the adoption of both noncontinuous flooding and nutrient management for each hectare.

Adoption trend information here takes the form of annual growth rate (%), with a median of 3.76% (Table 6). Adoption rate data are somewhat scarce.

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Table 6. Adoption trend.

Unit: %

25th percentile	3.00
median (50th percentile)	3.76
75th percentile	4.25

Percent annual growth rate.

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Adoption Ceiling

There are barriers to adoption of these techniques and practices. Not all paddy rice is suitable for improved water management, and under certain conditions, undesirable yield reductions are possible (Bo et al., 2022). Other challenges include water access, coordinating water usage between multiple users, and ownership of water pumps (Nabuurs et al., 2022).

There are many challenges in estimating paddy rice land. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics can overcount because land that produces more than one crop is double or triple counted. Satellite imagery is often blocked by clouds in the tropical humid areas where rice paddies are concentrated.

A comprehensive effort to calculate total world rice paddy land reported 66.00 Mha of irrigated paddy and 63.00 Mha of rain-fed paddy (Salmon et al., 2015). Our own calculation of the combined paddy rice area of countries producing over 100,000 ha of rice found 104.1 Mha of paddy rice.

We summed high-resolution maps of paddy rice area appropriate for noncontinuous flooding (Bo et al., 2022) over maps of irrigated and rain-fed rice areas (Salmon et al., 2015) to determine a maximum adoption ceiling for each country. Several countries have already exceeded this threshold, and we included their higher adoption in our calculation. The sum of these, and therefore, the median adoption ceiling, is 77.53 Mha (Table 7).

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Table 7. Adoption ceiling: upper limit for adoption level.

Unit: Mha

median

77.53

Mha of improved rice production installed.

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Achievable Adoption

Table 8. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: Mha

Current Adoption	48.65
Achievable – Low	49.56
Achievable – High	77.53
Adoption Ceiling	77.53

Mha of improved rice production installed.

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Given that both China and Japan have already attained adoption rates above our adoption ceiling (Bo et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2019), we selected for our adoption ceiling our Achievable – High adoption level, which is 77.53 Mha (Table 8).

In contrast, the countries with the lowest adoption rates had rates under 3%. In the absence of a modest adoption example, we chose to use current adoption plus 10% as our Achievable – Low adoption level. This provides an adoption of 49.56 Mha.

As described under Adoption Ceiling above, adoption of nutrient management is already weighted based on regional or national adoption and should not be overcounted in the achievable range calculations.

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We calculated the potential impact of improved rice, on a 100-yr basis, at 0.10 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr from current adoption, and 0.10, 0.16, and 0.16 from Achievable – Low, Achievable – High, and Adoption Ceiling, respectively (Table 9). On a 20-yr basis, the totals are 0.29, 0.29, 0.46, and 0.46, respectively.

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Table 9. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr

Current Adoption	0.10
Achievable – Low	0.10
Achievable – High	0.16
Adoption Ceiling	0.16

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr

Current Adoption	0.29
Achievable – Low	0.29
Achievable – High	0.46
Adoption Ceiling	0.46

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The IPCC estimated a technical potential at 0.3 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, with 0.2 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr as economically achievable at US$100/t CO₂ (100-yr basis; Nabuurs et al., 2022). Achieving the adoption ceiling of 76% of global flooded rice production could reduce rice paddy methaneby 47% (Bo et al., 2022). Applying this percentage to the IPCC reported total paddy methaneemissions of 0.49–0.73 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr yields a reduction of 0.23–0.34 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Nabuurs et al., 2022). Roe et al. (2021) calculated 0.19 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr. Note that these benchmarks only calculate methane from paddy rice, while we also addressed nitrous oxide from nutrient management.

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Additional Benefits

The additional benefits of improved rice production arise from both practices (noncontinuous flooding and improved nutrient management) that form this solution.

Health

Noncontinuous flooding can reduce the accumulation of arsenic in rice grains (Ishfaq et al., 2020). Arsenic is a carcinogen that is responsible for thousands of premature deaths in South and Southeast Asia (Jameel et al., 2021). The amount of arsenic reduced can vary by 0–90% depending upon the timing of the wetting and drying periods (Ishfaq et al., 2020).

Land Resources

Better nutrient management improves soil fertility and health, increasing resilience to extreme heat and droughts. Noncontinuous flooding also slows down the rate of soil salinization, protecting soil from degradation (Carrijo et al., 2017).

Water Resources

Rice irrigation is responsible for 40% of all freshwater use in Asia, and rice requires two to three times more water per metric ton of grain than other cereals (Surendran et al., 2021). Field studies across South and Southeast Asia have shown that noncontinuous flooding can typically reduce irrigation requirements 20–30% compared to conventional flooded systems (Suwanmaneepong et al., 2023; Carrijo et al., 2017) without adversely affecting rice yield or grain quality. This reduction in water usage alleviates pressure on water resources in drought-prone areas (Alauddin et al., 2020).

Adoption of noncontinuous flooding up to the adoption ceiling of 76% would reduce rice irrigation needs by 25%.

Water Quality

Both noncontinuous flooding and improved nutrient management reduce water pollution. Nitrogen utilization is generally poor using existing growing techniques, with two-thirds of the nitrogen fertilizer being lost through surface runoff and denitrification (Zhang et al., 2021). While noncontinuous flooding is primarily a water-efficiency and methane reduction technique, it can improve nitrogen use efficiency and reduce nitrogen runoff into water bodies (Liang et al., 2017; Liang et al., 2023). Improved nutrient management also reduces the excess fertilizers that could end up in local water bodies. Both mechanisms can mitigate eutrophication and harmful algal blooms, protect aquatic ecosystems, and ensure safer drinking water supplies (Bijay-Sing and Craswell, 2021).

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Risks

Not all paddies are suitable, with variables including soil type, irrigation infrastructure and ownership, community partitioning and scheduling of water resources, field size, and more (Nabuurs et al., 2022; Enriquez et al., 2021).

Many rice farmers in Asia do not directly control irrigation access, but instead use a municipal system, which is not always available when needed for noncontinuous flooding production. In addition, they may not actually experience cost savings, as pricing may be based on area rather than amount of water. An additional change is that multiple plots owned or rented by multiple farmers may be irrigated by a single irrigation gate, meaning that all must agree to an irrigation strategy. Generally speaking, pump-based irrigation areas see the best adoption, with poor adoption in gravity-based irrigation system areas. Improved irrigation infrastructure is necessary to increase adoption of noncontinuous flooding (Enriquez et al., 2021).

Continuously flooded paddies have lower weed pressure than noncontinuous paddies, so noncontinuous flooding can raise labor costs or increase herbicide use. Not all rice varieties grow well in noncontinuous flooding (Li et al., 2024). In addition, it is difficult for farmers, especially smallholders, to monitor soil moisture level, which makes determining the timing of the next irrigation difficult (Livsey et al., 2019).

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Interactions with Other Solutions

We did not identify any aligned or competing interactions with other solutions.

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Dashboard

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha rice paddies

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

2.03

Adoption

units

Current 4.865×10⁷ 04.956×10⁷7.753×10⁷

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.1 0.10.16

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

-175

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CH₄ , N₂O

Trade-offs

In some cases, rice yields are reduced (Nabuurs et al., 2022). However, this has been excluded from our calculations because we worked from the adoption ceiling of Bo et al. (2022), which explicitly addresses the question of maximum adoption without reducing yields.

Long-term impacts on soil health of water-saving irrigation strategies have not been widely studied, but a meta-analysis by Livsey et al. (2019) indicates a risk of decreases in soil carbon and fertility.

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Select data layer

% of area

0100

Paddy rice area, 2020

Rice is the third most widely grown crop in terms of cultivated area and provides more calories directly to people than any other crop. It also is an important source of methane emissions. Here we show pixels in which at least 1% of the area is devoted to paddy (flooded) rice. Upland (unflooded) rice is included in the Improve Nutrient Management solution.

Cao, P., Bilotto, F., Gonzalez Fischer, C., Mueller, N. D., Carlson, K. M., Gerber, J.S., Smith, P., Tubiello, F. N., West, P. C., You, L., & Herrero, M. (2025). Mapping greenhouse gas emissions from global cropland circa 2020 [Data set, PREPRINT Version 1]. In review at Nature Climate Change. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6622054/v1

Tang, F. H. M., Nguyen, T. H., Conchedda, G., Casse, L., Tubiello, F. N., & Maggi, F. (2024). CROPGRIDS: A global geo-referenced dataset of 173 crops [Data set]. Scientific Data, 11(1), 413. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03247-7

Select data layer

% of area

0100

Paddy rice area, 2020

Maps Introduction

Improved rice production has its greatest potential in regions where there is substantial paddy rice production and adequate water availability to allow farmers to implement drain/flood cycles throughout the growing season (noncontinuous flooding). Rice production is dominated by Asia, so the greatest potential for solution uptake is there. Brazil and the United States rank 9th and 11th for rice production, and each has regions where this solution would have multiple benefits. Because improved rice production solution may not decrease yields, not all paddy rice-growing areas are suitable. There are regions of great potential throughout Southeast Asia, particularly in Vietnam and Thailand.

Other factors besides biophysical factors govern the suitability of noncontinuous flooding. For example, farmers are more likely to release water in their fields if they are confident that water will be available for subsequent irrigation, which often depends on community structures.

There is very scarce information on adoption of noncontinuous flooding, although Bangladesh, China, Japan, and South Korea have relatively high uptake.

Action Word

Improve

Solution Title

Rice Production

Classification

Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Set national targets for improving rice production and incorporate them into planning documents such as Nationally Determined Contributions.
If possible and appropriate, encourage rice farmers to adopt noncontinuous flooding.
Use policies and regulations to improve nutrient management by focusing on the four principles – right rate, right type of fertilizer, right time, and right place.
Invest in research and development to improve rice varieties to require less water, have shorter growth periods, produce higher yields, and tolerate more stress.
Invest in research and development to improve water monitoring technology and discover alternative fertilizers.
Improve the reliability of water irrigation systems.
Work with farmers and private organizations to improve data collection on advanced cultivation uptake and water management.
Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to improving rice cultivation.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Government relations and public policy job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Legal job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al. (2023)

Practitioners

Practice noncontinuous flooding.
Take advantage of financial incentives such as tax rebates and subsidies for improved rice cultivation.
Improve nutrient management by focusing on the four principles – right rate, right type of fertilizer, right time, and right place.
Plant improved rice varieties that require less water, have shorter growth periods, produce higher yields, and tolerate more stress.
Work with policymakers and private organizations to improve data collection on advanced cultivation uptake and water management.
Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to improving rice cultivation.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al (2023)

Business Leaders

Source food from farms that practice improved rice cultivation.
Invest in companies that utilize improved rice cultivation techniques or produce the necessary inputs.
Promote products that employ improved rice cultivation techniques and educate consumers about the importance of the practice.
Enter into offtake agreements for rice grown with improved techniques.
Invest in research and development to improve rice varieties to require less water, have shorter growth periods, produce higher yields, and tolerate more stress.
Invest in research and development to improve water monitoring technology and identify alternative fertilizers.
Work with farmers and private organizations to improve data collection on advanced cultivation uptake and water management.
Advocate to policymakers for improved rice cultivation techniques, incentives, and regulations.
Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to improving rice cultivation.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: a comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Climate solutions at work. Project Drawdown (2021)
Drawdown-aligned business framework. Project Drawdown (2021)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al (2023)

Nonprofit Leaders

Source food from farms that practice improved rice cultivation.
Start model farms to demonstrate techniques, conduct experiments, and educate local farmers.
Engage with businesses to encourage corporate responsibility and/or monitor rice production.
Help develop rice varieties to require less water, have shorter growth periods, produce higher yields, and tolerate more stress.
Help improve water monitoring technology and develop alternative fertilizers.
Work with farmers and other private organizations to improve data collection on advanced cultivation uptake and water management.
Advocate to policymakers for improved rice cultivation techniques, incentives, and regulations.
Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to improving rice cultivation.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al (2023)

Investors

Ensure portfolio companies and company procurement use improved rice cultivation techniques.
Offer financial services, including low-interest loans, micro-financing, and grants to support improving rice cultivation.
Invest in electronically-traded funds (ETFs); environmental, social and governance (ESG) funds; and green bonds issued by companies committed to improved rice cultivation.
Invest in companies developing technologies that support improved nutrient management, such as precision fertilizer applicators, alternative fertilizers, soil management equipment, and software.
Invest in start-ups that aim to improve rice varieties to require less water, have shorter growth periods, produce higher yields, and tolerate more stress.
Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to improving rice cultivation.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al. (2023)

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Work with agricultural supply chain sources to ensure partners employ improved rice production methods, if relevant.
Start model farms to demonstrate techniques, conduct experiments, and educate local farmers.
Offer financial services, including low-interest loans, micro-financing, and grants to support improving rice cultivation.
Engage with businesses to encourage corporate responsibility and/or monitor rice production.
Help develop rice varieties to require less water, have shorter growth periods, produce higher yields, and tolerate more stress.
Help improve water monitoring technology and identify alternative fertilizers.
Work with farmers and other private organizations to improve data collection on advanced cultivation uptake and water management.
Advocate to policymakers for improved rice cultivation techniques, incentives, and regulations.
Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to improving rice cultivation.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al (2023)

Thought Leaders

Source rice from farms that practice improved rice cultivation.
Start model farms to demonstrate techniques, conduct experiments, and educate local farmers.
Engage with businesses to encourage corporate responsibility and/or monitor rice production.
Help develop rice varieties to require less water, have shorter growth periods, produce higher yields, and tolerate more stress.
Help improve water monitoring technology and identify alternative fertilizers.
Work with farmers and other private organizations to improve data collection on advanced cultivation uptake and water management.
Advocate to policymakers for improved rice cultivation techniques, incentives, and regulations.
Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to improving rice cultivation.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al (2023)

Technologists and Researchers

Improve technology and cost-effectiveness of precision fertilizer application, slow-release fertilizer, alternative organic fertilizers, nutrient recycling, and monitoring equipment.
Create tracking and monitoring software to support farmers' decision-making.
Research the application of AI and robotics for precise fertilizer application and water management.
Improve data and analytics to monitor soil and water quality, assist farmers, support policymaking, and assess the impacts of policies.
Improve rice methane emissions modeling and monitoring using all available technologies such as satellites, low-flying instruments, and on-the-ground methods.
Develop education and training applications to promote improved rice cultivation techniques and provide real-time feedback.
Improve data collection on water management and advanced cultivation uptake.
Improve rice varieties to require less water, have shorter growth periods, produce higher yields, and tolerate more stress.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al (2023)

Communities, Households, and Individuals

Purchase rice from farms or suppliers that practice improved rice cultivation.
Engage with businesses to encourage corporate responsibility and/or monitor rice production.
Work with farmers and other private organizations to improve data collection on advanced cultivation uptake and water management.
Advocate to policymakers for improved rice cultivation techniques, incentives, and regulations.
Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to improving rice cultivation.

Further information:

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)
Sustainable rice platform. (n.d)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al (2023)

Sources

Economic and environmental indicators of sustainable rice cultivation: A comparison across intensive irrigated rice cropping systems in six Asian countries. Devkota et al. (2019)
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system: A critical review in Indian perspective. Kumar et al. (2021)
The role of rice cultivation in changes in atmospheric methane concentration and the Global Methane Pledge. Wang et al. (2023)
Small farms, big ideas. Proximity Designs (n.d.)

Evidence Base

There is high consensus on the effectiveness and potential of noncontinuous flooding and nutrient management (Jiang et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2023; Nabuurs et al., 2022; Qian et al., 2023).

Hergoualc’h et al. (2019) describe methane reduction and associated nitrous oxide increase from noncontinuous flooding in detail(2019). Bo et al. (2022) calculate that 76% of global rice paddy area is suitable to switch to noncontinuous flooding without reducing yields. Carlson et al. (2016) provide emissions intensities for croplands, including rice production. Ludemann et al. (2024) provide country-by-country and crop-by-crop fertilizer use data. Qian et al. (2023) review methaneemissions production and reduction potential.

The results presented in this document summarize findings from 12 reviews and meta-analyses and 26 original studies reflecting current evidence from countries across the Asian rice production region. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

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Appendix

In this analysis, we calculated the potential for reducing crop nitrogen inputs and associated nitrous oxide emissions by integrating spatially explicit, crop-specific data on nitrogen inputs, crop yields, attainable yields, irrigated extent, and climate. Broadly, we calculated a “target” yield-scaled nitrogen input rate based on pixels with low yield gaps and calculated the difference between nitrous oxide emissions under the current rate and under the hypothetical target emissions rate, using nitrous oxide emissions factors disaggregated by fertilizer type and climate.

Emissions Factors

We used Tier 1 emissions factors from the IPCC 2019 Refinement to the 2006 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, including direct emissions factors as well as indirect emissions from volatilization and leaching pathways. Direct emissions factors represent the proportion of applied nitrogen emitted as nitrous oxide, while we calculated volatilization and leaching emissions factors by multiplying the proportion of applied nitrogen lost through these pathways by the proportion of volatilized or leached nitrogen ultimately emitted as nitrous oxide. Including both direct and indirect emissions, organic and synthetic fertilizers emit 4.97 kg CO₂‑eq/kg nitrogen and 8.66 kg CO₂‑eq/kg nitrogen, respectively, in wet climates, and 2.59 kg CO₂‑eq/kg nitrogen and 2.38 kg CO₂‑eq/kg nitrogen in dry climates. We included uncertainty bounds (2.5th and 97.5th percentiles) for all emissions factors.

We classified each pixel as “wet” or “dry” using an aridity index (AI) threshold of 0.65, calculated as the ratio of annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration (PET) from TerraClimate data (1991–2020), based on a threshold of 0.65. For pixels in dry climates that contained irrigation, we took the weighted average of wet and dry emissions factors based on the fraction of cropland that was irrigated (Mehta et al., 2024). We excluded irrigated rice from this analysis due to large differences in nitrous oxide dynamics in flooded rice systems.

Current, Target, and Avoidable Nitrogen Inputs and Emissions

Using highly disaggregated data on nitrogen inputs from Adalibieke et al. (2024) for 21 crop groups, we calculated total crop-specific inputs of synthetic and organic nitrogen. We then averaged over 2016–2020 to reduce the influence of interannual variability in factors like fertilizer prices. These values are subsequently referred to as “current” nitrogen inputs. We calculated nitrous oxide emissions under current nitrogen inputs as the sum of the products of nitrogen inputs and the climatically relevant emissions factors for each fertilizer type.

Next, we calculated target nitrogen application rates in terms of kg nitrogen per ton of crop yield using data on actual and attainable yields for 17 crops from Gerber et al., 2024. For each crop, we first identified pixels in which the ratio of actual to attainable yields was above the 80th percentile globally. The target nitrogen application rate was then calculated as the 20th percentile of nitrogen application rates across low-yield-gap pixels. Finally, we calculated total target nitrogen inputs as the product of actual yields and target nitrogen input rates. We calculated hypothetical nitrous oxide emissions from target nitrogen inputs as the product of nitrogen inputs and the climatically relevant emissions factor for each fertilizer type.

The difference between current and target nitrogen inputs represents the amount by which nitrogen inputs could hypothetically be reduced without compromising crop productivity (i.e., “avoidable” nitrogen inputs). We calculated avoidable nitrous oxide emissions as the difference between nitrous oxide emissions with current nitrogen inputs and those with target nitrogen inputs. For crops for which no yield or attainable yield data were available, we applied the average percent reduction in nitrogen inputs under the target scenario from available crops to the nitrogen input data for missing crops to calculate the avoidable nitrogen inputs and emissions.

This simple and empirically driven method aimed to identify realistically low but nutritionally adequate nitrogen application rates by including only pixels with low yield gaps, which are unlikely to be substantially nutrient-constrained. We did not control for other factors affecting nitrogen availability, such as historical nutrient application rates or depletion, rotation with nitrogen fixing crops, or tillage and residue retention practices.

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Updated Date

Tue, 09/23/2025 - 12:00

Read more about Improve Rice Production

Protect Peatlands

Submitted by Drawdown Admin on Sat, 02/15/2025 - 15:02

Sector

FALO & Nature-Based Carbon Removal

Mode

Cut Emissions and Remove Carbon

Cluster

Protect & Manage Ecosystems

Image

Coming Soon

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Summary

The Protect Peatlands solution is defined as legally protecting peatland ecosystems through establishment of protected areas (PAs), which preserves stored carbon and ensures continued carbon sequestration by reducing degradation of the natural hydrology, soils, and/or vegetation. This solution focuses on non-coastal peatlands that have not yet been drained or otherwise severely degraded. Reducing emissions from degraded peatlands is addressed in the Restore Peatlands solution, and mangroves located on peat soils are addressed in the Protect Coastal Wetlands solution.

Overview

Peatlands are diverse ecosystems characterized by waterlogged, carbon-rich peat soils consisting of partially decomposed dead plant material (Figure 1). They are degraded or destroyed through clearing of vegetation and drainage for agriculture, forestry, peat extraction, or other development. An estimated 600 Gt carbon (~2,200 Gt CO₂‑eq ) is stored in peatlands, twice as much as the carbon stock in all forest biomass (Yu et al., 2010; Pan et al., 2024). Because decomposition occurs very slowly under waterlogged conditions, large amounts of plant material have accumulated in a partially decomposed state over millennia. These carbon-rich ecosystems occupy only 3–4% of land area (Xu et al., 2018b; United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP], 2022). Their protection is both feasible due to their small area and highly impactful due to their carbon density.

Figure 1. These photos show the diversity of peatlands that occur in different places, including a fen peatland and meadow complex in California (top left), a peat swamp in Indonesia (top right), a peat fen and forest in Canada (bottom left), and a peat bog in New Hampshire (bottom right).

Photo credits: Catie and Jim Bishop | U.S. Department of Agriculture; Rhett A. Butler; Garth Lenz; Linnea Hanson | U.S. Department of Agriculture

When peatlands are drained or disturbed, the rate of carbon loss increases sharply as the accumulated organic matter begins decomposing (Figure 2). Removal of overlying vegetation produces additional GHG emissions while also slowing or stopping carbon uptake. Whereas emissions from vegetation removal occur rapidly following disturbance, peat decomposition and associated emissions can continue for centuries depending on environmental conditions and peat thickness. Peat decomposition after disturbance occurs faster in warmer climates because cold temperatures slow microbial activity. In this analysis, we evaluated tropical, subtropical, temperate, and boreal regions separately.

In addition to peat decomposition, biomass removal, and lost carbon sequestration, peatland disturbance impacts methane and nitrous oxide emissions and carbon loss through waterways (Figure 2; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, 2014; UNEP, 2022). Intact peatlands are a methane source because of methane-producing microbes, which thrive under waterlogged conditions. However, carbon uptake typically outweighs methane emissions. Leifield et al. (2019) found that intact peatlands are a net carbon sink of 0.77 ± 0.15 t CO₂‑eq /ha/yr in temperate and boreal regions and 1.65 ± 0.51 t CO₂‑eq /ha/yr in tropical regions after accounting for methane emissions. Peatland drainage reduces methane emissions from the peatland itself, but the drainage ditches can become potent methane sources (Evans et al., 2015; Peacock et al., 2021). Dissolved and particulate organic carbon also run off through drainage ditches, increasing CO₂ emissions in waterways from microbial activity and abiotic processes. Finally, rates of nitrous oxide emissions increase following drainage as the nitrogen stored in the peat becomes available to microbes.

Patterns of ongoing peatland drainage are poorly understood at the global scale, but rates of ecosystem disturbance are generally lower in PAs and on Indigenous peoples’ lands than outside of them (Li et al., 2024b; Wolf et al., 2021; Sze et al., 2021). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines six levels of PAs that vary in their allowed uses, ranging from strict wilderness preserves to sustainable use areas that allow for some extraction of natural resources. All PA levels were included in this analysis (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center [UNEP-WCMC] and IUCN, 2024). Due to compounding uncertainties in the distributions of peatlands and Indigenous peoples’ lands, which have not yet been comprehensively mapped, and unknown rates of peatland degradation within Indigenous people’s lands, peatlands within Indigenous peoples’ lands were excluded from the tables but are discussed in the text (Garnett et al., 2018; UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2024).

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Helbig, M., Waddington, J. M., Alekseychik, P., Amiro, B., Aurela, M., Barr, A. G., Black, T. A., Carey, S. K., Chen, J., Chi, J., Desai, A. R., Dunn, A., Euskirchen, E. S., Flanagan, L. B., Friborg, T., Garneau, M., Grelle, A., Harder, S., Heliasz, M., … Schulze, C. (2020). The biophysical climate mitigation potential of boreal peatlands during the growing season. Environmental Research Letters, 15(10), 104004. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abab34

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Credits

Lead Fellow

Avery Driscoll

Contributors

Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Daniel Jasper
Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

Aiyana Bodi
Hannah Henkin
Megan Matthews, Ph.D.
Ted Otte
Christina Swanson, Ph.D.
Paul C. West, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

We estimated that protecting a ha of peatland avoids 0.92–13.47 t CO₂‑eq /ha/yr, with substantially higher emissions reductions in subtropical and tropical regions and lower emissions reductions in boreal regions (100-yr GWP; Table 1a–d; Appendix).

We estimated effectiveness as the avoided emissions attributable to the reduction in peatland loss conferred by protection (Equation 1). First, we calculated the biome-specific difference between the annual rate of peatland loss outside PAs (Peatland loss_baseline) versus inside PAs (Peatland loss_protected) (Appendix; Conchedda & Tubellio, 2020; Davidson et al., 2014; Miettinen et al., 2011; Miettinen et al., 2016; Uda et al., 2017, Wolf et al., 2021). We then multiplied the avoided peatland loss by the total emissions from one ha of drained peatland over 30 years. This is the sum of the total biomass carbon stock (Carbon_biomass), which degrades relatively quickly; 30 years of annual emissions from peat itself (Carbon_flux); and 30 years of lost carbon sequestration potential, reflecting the carbon that would have been taken up by one ha of intact peatland in the absence of degradation (Carbon_uptake) (IPCC Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, 2014; UNEP, 2022). The carbon flux includes CO₂‑eq emissions from: 1) peat oxidation, 2) dissolved organic carbon loss through drainage, 3) the net change in on-field methane between undrained and drained states, 4) methane emissions from drainage ditches, and 5) on-field nitrous oxide emissions.

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Equation 1.

\[Effectiveness = (Peatland\text{ }loss_{baseline} - Peatland\text{ }loss_{protected})\times( Carbon_{biomass} + 30\cdot Carbon_{flux} + 30\cdot Carbon_{uptake}) \]

Without rewetting, peat loss typically persists beyond 30 years and can continue for centuries (Leifield & Menichetti, 2018). Thus, this is a conservative estimate of peatland protection effectiveness that captures near-term impacts, aligns with the 30-yr cost amortization time frame, and is roughly consistent with commonly used 2050 targets. Using a longer time frame produces larger estimates of emissions from degraded peatlands and therefore higher effectiveness of peatland protection.

The effectiveness of peatland protection as defined here reflects only a small percentage of the carbon stored in peatlands because we account for the likelihood that the peatland would be destroyed without protection. Peatland protection is particularly impactful for peatlands at high risk of drainage.

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Table 1. Effectiveness of peatland protection at avoiding emissions and sequestering carbon. Regional differences in values are driven by variation in emissions factors and baseline rates of peatland drainage.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis/ha of peatland protected/yr

Estimate

0.92

Unit: t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis/ha of peatland protected/yr

Estimate

4.42

Unit: t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis/ha of peatland protected/yr

Estimate

13.47

Unit: t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis/ha of peatland protected/yr

Estimate

13.23

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Cost

We estimated that the net cost of peatland protection is approximately US$1.5/ha/yr, or $0.25/t CO₂‑eq avoided (Table 2). Data related to the costs of peatland protection are very limited. These estimates reflect global averages rather than regionally specific values, and rarely include data specific to peatlands. The costs of peatland protection include up-front costs of land acquisition and ongoing costs of management and enforcement. The market price of land reflects the opportunity cost of not using the land for other purposes, such as agriculture, forestry, peat extraction, or urban development. Protecting peatlands can also generate revenue through increased tourism. Costs and revenues are highly variable across regions, depending on the costs of land and enforcement and potential for tourism.

Dienerstein et al. (2024) estimated the initial cost of establishing a protected area for 60 high-biodiversity ecoregions. Amongst the 33 regions that were likely to contain peatlands, the median acquisition cost was US$957/ha, which we amortized over 30 years. Costs of protected area maintenance were estimated at US$9–17/ha/yr (Bruner et al., 2004; Waldron et al., 2020), though these estimates were not specific to peatlands. Additionally, these estimates reflect the costs of effective enforcement and management, but many existing protected areas lack adequate funds for effective enforcement (Adams et al., 2019; Barnes et al., 2018; Burner et al., 2004). Waldron et al. (2020) estimated that, across all ecosystems, tourism revenues directly attributable to protected area establishment were US$43/ha/yr, not including downstream revenues from industries that benefit from increased tourism. Inclusion of a tourism multiplier would substantially increase the estimated economic benefits of peatland protection.

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Table 2. Cost per unit climate impact for peatland protection.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis

median

0.25

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Learning Curve

A learning curve is defined here as falling costs with increased adoption. The costs of peatland protection do not fall with increasing adoption, so there is no learning curve for this solution.

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Speed of Action

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as gradual, emergency brake, or delayed.

Protect Peatlands is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It has the potential to deliver a more rapid impact than gradual and delayed solutions. Because emergency brake solutions can deliver their climate benefits quickly, they can help accelerate our efforts to address dangerous levels of climate change. For this reason, they are a high priority.

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Caveats

Permanence, or the durability of stored carbon, is a caveat for emissions avoidance through peatland protection that is not addressed in this analysis. Protected peatlands could be drained if legal protections are reversed or inadequately enforced, resulting in the loss of stored carbon. Additionally, fires on peatlands have become more frequent due to climate change (Turetsky et al., 2015; Loisel et al., 2021), and can produce very large emissions pulses (Konecny et al., 2016; Nelson et al., 2021). In boreal regions, permafrost thaw can trigger large, sustained carbon losses from previously frozen peat (Hugelius et al., 2020; Jones et al., 2017). In tropical regions, climate change-induced changes in precipitation can lower water tables in intact peatlands, increasing risks of peat loss and reducing sequestration potential (Deshmukh et al., 2021).

Additionality, or the degree to which emissions reductions are above and beyond a baseline, is another important caveat for emissions avoidance through ecosystem protection (Atkinson & Alibašić, 2023; Fuller et al., 2020; Williams et al., 2023). In this analysis, additionality was addressed by using baseline rates of peatland degradation in calculating effectiveness. Evaluating additionality is challenging and remains an active area of research.

Finally, there are substantial uncertainties in the available data on peatland areas and distributions, peatland loss rates, the drivers of peatland loss, the extent and boundaries of PAs, and the efficacy of PAs at reducing peatland disturbance. Emissions dynamics on both intact and cleared peatlands are also uncertain, particularly under different land management practices and in the context of climate change.

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Current Adoption

Because peatlands are characterized by their soils rather than by overlying vegetation, they are difficult to map at the global scale (Minasny et al., 2024). Mapping peatlands remains an active area of research, and the adoption values presented here are uncertain. We estimated that 22.6 Mha of peatlands are located within strictly protected PAs (IUCN classes I or II), and 82.3 Mha are within other or unknown PA classes (Table 3a–e; UNEP, 2022; UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2024), representing 22% of total global peatland area (482 Mha). Because of data limitations, we did not include Indigenous peoples’ lands in subsequent analyses despite their conservation benefits. There are an additional 186 Mha of peatlands within Indigenous peoples’ lands that are not classified as PAs, with a large majority (155 Mha) located in boreal regions (Table 3; Garnett et al., 2018; UNEP, 2022).

Given the uncertainty in the global extent of peatlands, estimates of peatland protection vary. The Global Peatlands Assessment estimated that 19% (90.7 Mha) of peatlands are protected (UNEP, 2022), with large regional variations ranging from 35% of peatlands protected in Africa to only 10% in Asia. Using a peatland map from Melton et al. (2012), Austin et al. (2025) estimated that 17% of global peatlands are within PAs, and an additional 27% are located in Indigenous peoples’ lands (excluding Indigenous peoples’ lands in Canada covering large peatland areas).

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Table 3. Current peatland area under protection by biome (circa 2023). Estimates are provided for two different forms of protection: “strict” protection, including IUCN classes I and II, and “nonstrict” protection, including all other IUCN classes. Regional values may not sum to global totals due to rounding.

Unit: Mha protected

Area within strict PAs	12.4
Area within non-strict PAs	41.7

Unit: Mha protected

Area within strict PAs	3.0
Area within non-strict PAs	10.1

Unit: Mha protected

Area within strict PAs	1.1
Area within non-strict PAs	1.6

Unit: Mha protected

Area within strict PAs	6.1
Area within non-strict PAs	28.9

Unit: Mha protected

Area within strict PAs	22.6
Area within non-strict PAs	82.3

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Adoption Trend

We calculated the annual rate of new peatland protection based on the year of PA establishment for areas established in 2000–2020. The median annual increase in peatland protection was 0.86 Mha (mean 2.0 Mha; Table 4a–d). This represents a roughly 0.8%/yr increase in peatlands within PAs, or protection of an additional 0.2%/yr of total global peatlands. This suggests that peatland protection is likely occurring at a somewhat slower rate than peatland degradation – which is estimated to be around 0.5% annually at the global scale – though this estimate is highly uncertain and spatially variable (Davidson et al., 2014).

There were large year-to-year differences in how much new peatland area was protected over this period, ranging from only 0.2 Mha in 2016 to 7.9 Mha in 2007. The rate at which peatland protection is increasing has been decreasing, with a median increase of 1.7 Mha/yr between 2000 and 2010 declining to 0.7 Mha/yr during 2010–2020. Recent median adoption of peatland protection by area is highest in boreal (0.5 Mha/yr, Table 4a) and tropical regions (0.2 Mha/yr, Table 4d), followed by temperate regions (0.1 Mha/yr, Table 4b) and subtropical regions (0.01 Mha/yr, Table 4c) (2010–2020). Scaled by total peatland area, however, recent rates of peatland protection are lowest in the subtropics (0.04%/yr), followed by the boreal (0.14%/yr), the tropics (0.16%/yr), and temperate regions (0.19%/yr).

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Table 4. Adoption trend for peatland protection in PAs of any IUCN class (2000–2020). The 25th and 75th percentiles reflect only interannual variance.

Unit: Mha of peatland protected/yr

25th percentile	0.24
mean	0.87
median (50th percentile)	0.50
75th percentile	0.89

Unit: Mha of peatland protected/yr

25th percentile	0.07
mean	0.23
median (50th percentile)	0.10
75th percentile	0.28

Unit: Mha of peatland protected/yr

25th percentile	0.00
mean	0.04
median (50th percentile)	0.01
75th percentile	0.04

Unit: Mha of peatland protected/yr

25th percentile	0.05
mean	0.84
median (50th percentile)	0.25
75th percentile	0.83

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Adoption Ceiling

We considered the adoption ceiling to include all undrained, non-coastal peatlands and estimated this to be 425 Mha, based on the Global Peatlands Database and Global Peatlands Map (UNEP, 2022; Table 5e; Appendix). We estimated that 284 Mha of undrained peatlands remain in boreal regions (Table 5a), 26 Mha in temperate regions (Table 5b), 12 Mha in the subtropics (Table 5c), and 103 Mha in the tropics (Table 5d). The adoption ceiling represents the technical upper limit to adoption of this solution.

There is substantial uncertainty in the global extent of peatlands, which is not quantified in these adoption ceiling values. Estimates of global peatland extent from recent literature include 404 Mha (Melton et al., 2022), 423 Mha (Xu et al., 2018b), 437 Mha (Müller & Joos, 2021), 463 Mha (Leifield & Menichetti, 2018), and 488 Mha (UNEP, 2022). Several studies suggest that the global peatland area may still be underestimated (Minasny et al., 2024; UNEP, 2022).

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Table 5. Adoption ceiling: upper limit for adoption of legal protection of peatlands by biome. Values may not sum to global totals due to rounding.

Unit: Mha protected

Peatland area (Mha)

284

Unit: Mha protected

Peatland area (Mha)

Unit: Mha protected

Peatland area (Mha)

Unit: Mha protected

Peatland area (Mha)

103

Unit: Mha protected

Peatland area (Mha)

425

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Achievable Adoption

UNEP (2022) places a high priority on protecting a large majority of remaining peatlands for both climate and conservation objectives. We defined the achievable range for peatland protection as 70% (low achievable) to 90% (high achievable) of remaining undrained peatlands. Only ~19% of peatlands are currently under formal protection within PAs (UNEP, 2022; UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2024). However, approximately 60% of undrained peatlands are under some form of protection if peatlands within Indigenous peoples’ lands are considered (Garnett et al., 2018; UNEP, 2022; UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2024). While ambitious, this provides support for our selected achievable range of 70–90% (Table 6a-e).

Ensuring effective and durable protection of these peatlands from drainage and degradation, including secure land tenure for Indigenous peoples who steward peatlands and other critical ecosystems, is a critical first step. Research suggests that local community leadership, equitable stakeholder engagement, and cross-scalar governance are needed to achieve conservation goals while also balancing social and economic outcomes through sustainable use (Atkinson & Alibašić, 2023; Cadillo & Bennett, 2024; Girkin et al., 2023; Harrison et al., 2019; Suwarno et al., 2015). Sustainable uses of peatlands include some forms of paludiculture, which can involve peatland plant cultivation, fishing, or gathering without disturbance of the hydrology or peat layer (Tan et al., 2021).

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Table 6. Range of achievable adoption of peatland protection by biome.

Unit: Mha protected

Current Adoption	54
Achievable – Low	199
Achievable – High	255
Adoption Ceiling	284

Unit: Mha protected

Current Adoption	13
Achievable – Low	18
Achievable – High	24
Adoption Ceiling	26

Unit: Mha protected

Current Adoption	3
Achievable – Low	9
Achievable – High	11
Adoption Ceiling	12

Unit: Mha protected

Current Adoption	35
Achievable – Low	72
Achievable – High	92
Adoption Ceiling	103

Unit: Mha protected

Current Adoption	105
Achievable – Low	297
Achievable – High	382
Adoption Ceiling	425

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We estimated that PAs currently reduce emissions from peatland degradation by 0.6 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Table 7a-e). Achievable levels of peatland protection have the potential to reduce emissions 1.3–1.7 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, with a technical upper bound of 1.9 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr. The estimate of climate impacts under current adoption does not include the large areas of peatlands protected by Indigenous peoples but not legally recognized as PAs. Inclusion of these areas would increase the current estimated impact of peatland protection to 0.9 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr.

Other published estimates of additional emissions reductions through peatland protection are somewhat lower, with confidence intervals of 0–1.2 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Griscom et al., 2017; Humpenöder et al., 2020; Loisel et al., 2021; Strack et al., 2022). These studies vary in their underlying methodology and data, including the extent of peatland, the baseline rate of peatland loss, the potential for protected area expansion, which GHGs are considered, the time frame over which emissions are calculated, and whether they account for vegetation carbon loss or just emissions from the peat itself.

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Table 7. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂ ‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current Adoption	0.05
Achievable – Low	0.18
Achievable – High	0.24
Adoption Ceiling	0.26

Unit: Gt CO₂ ‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current Adoption	0.06
Achievable – Low	0.08
Achievable – High	0.11
Adoption Ceiling	0.12

Unit: Gt CO₂ ‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current Adoption	0.04
Achievable – Low	0.12
Achievable – High	0.15
Adoption Ceiling	0.17

Unit: Gt CO₂ ‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current Adoption	0.46
Achievable – Low	0.95
Achievable – High	1.22
Adoption Ceiling	1.36

Unit: Gt CO₂ ‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current Adoption	0.61
Achievable – Low	1.33
Achievable – High	1.71
Adoption Ceiling	1.90

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Additional Benefits

Extreme Weather Events

Peatland protection can help communities adapt to extreme weather. Because peatlands regulate water flows, they can reduce the risk of droughts and floods (IUCN, 2021; Ritson et al., 2016). Evidence suggests that peatlands can provide a cooling effect to the immediate environment, lowering daytime temperatures and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (Dietrich & Behrendt, 2022; Helbig et al., 2020; Worrall et al., 2022).

Health

When peatlands are drained they are susceptible to fire. Peatland fires can significantly contribute to air pollution because of the way these fires smolder (Uda et al., 2019). Smoke and pollutants, particularly PM_2.5, from peatland fires can harm respiratory health and lead to premature mortality (Marlier et al., 2019). A study of peatland fires in Indonesia estimated they contribute to the premature mortality of about 33,100 adults and about 2,900 infants annually (Hein et al., 2022). Researchers have linked exposure to PM_2.5 from peatland fires to increased hospitalizations, asthma, and lost workdays (Hein et al., 2022). Peatland protection mitigates exposure to air pollution and can save money from reduced health-care expenditures (Kiely et al., 2021).

Income and Work

Peatlands support the livelihoods of nearby communities, especially those in low- and middle-income countries. In the peatlands of the Amazon and Congo basins, fishing livelihoods depend on aquatic wildlife (Thornton et al., 2020). Peatlands in the Peruvian Amazon provide important goods for trade, such as palm fruit and timber, and are used for hunting by nearby populations (Schulz et al., 2019). Peatlands can also support the livelihoods of women and contribute to gender equality. For example, raw materials – purun – from Indonesian peatlands are used by women to create and sell mats used in significant events such as births, weddings, and burials (Goib et al., 2018).

Nature Protection

Peatlands are home to a wide range of species, supporting biodiversity of flora and an abundance of wildlife (UNEP, 2022; Minayeva et al., 2017; Posa et al., 2011). Because of their unique ecosystem, peatlands provide a habitat for many rare and threatened species (Posa et al., 2011). A study of Indonesian peat swamps found that the IUCN Red List classified approximately 45% of mammals and 33% of birds living in these ecosystems as threatened, vulnerable, or endangered (Posa et al., 2011). Peatlands also support a variety of insect species (Spitzer & Danks, 2006). Because of their sensitivity to environmental changes, some peatland insects can act as indicators of peatland health and play a role in conservation efforts (Spitzer & Danks, 2006).

Water Resources

Peatlands can filter water pollutants and improve water quality and are important sources of potable water for some populations (Minayeva et al., 2017). Xu et al. (2018a) estimated that peatlands store about 10% of freshwater globally, not including glacial water. Peatlands are a significant drinking water source for people in the United Kingdom and Ireland, where they provide potable water for about 71.4 million people (Xu et al., 2018a).

Water Quality

See Water Resources section above.

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Risks

Leakage occurs when peatland drainage and clearing moves outside of protected area boundaries and is a risk of relying on peatland protection as an emissions reduction strategy (Harrison & Paoli, 2012; Strack et al., 2022). If the relocated clearing also occurs on peat soils, emissions from peatland drainage and degradation are relocated but not actually reduced. If disturbance is relocated to mineral soils, however, the disturbance-related emissions will typically be lower. Combining peatland protection with policies to reduce incentives for peatland clearing can help avoid leakage.

Peatland protection must be driven by or conducted in close collaboration with local communities, which often depend on peatlands for their livelihoods and economic advancement (Jalilov et al., 2025; Li et al., 2024a; Suwarno et al., 2016). Failure to include local communities in conservation efforts violates community sovereignty and can exacerbate existing socioeconomic inequities (Felipe Cadillo & Bennet, 2024; Thorburn & Kull, 2015). Effective peatland protection requires development of alternative income opportunities for communities currently dependent on peatland drainage, such as tourism; sustainable peatland use practices like paludiculture; or compensation for ecosystem service provisioning, including carbon storage (Evers et al., 2017; Girkin et al., 2023; Suwarno et al., 2016; Syahza et al., 2020; Tan et al., 2021; Uda et al., 2017).

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Interactions with Other Solutions

Reinforcing

Protected areas often include multiple ecosystems. Peatland protection will likely lead to protection of other ecosystems within the same areas, and the health of nearby ecosystems is improved by the services provided by intact peatlands.

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Restored peatlands need protection to reduce the risk of future disturbance, and the health of protected peatlands can be improved through restoration of adjacent degraded peatlands.

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Restore Peatlands

Reducing food loss and waste and improving diets reduce demand for agricultural land. These solutions reduce pressure to convert peatlands to agriculture use, easing expansion of protected areas.

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Competing

None

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Dashboard

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha protected

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

0.92

Adoption

units

Current 5.4×10⁷ 01.99×10⁸2.55×10⁸

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided & Carbon Removed

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.05 0.180.24

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂ ,CH₄, N₂O

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha protected

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

4.42

Adoption

units

Current 1.3×10⁷ 01.8×10⁷2.4×10⁷

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided & Carbon Removed

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.06 0.080.11

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂ ,CH₄, N₂O

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha protected

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

13.47

Adoption

units

Current 2.63×10⁷ 09×10⁶1.1×10⁷

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided & Carbon Removed

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.04 0.120.15

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂ ,CH₄, N₂O

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha protected

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

13.23

Adoption

units

Current 3.5×10⁷ 07.2×10⁷9.2×10⁷

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided & Carbon Removed

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.46 0.951.22

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂ ,CH₄, N₂O

Trade-offs

None

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Action Word

Protect

Solution Title

Peatlands

Classification

Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Set clear designations of remaining peatlands and implement robust monitoring and enforcement methods.
Place bans or regulations on draining intact peatlands, compensate farmers for income losses, and offer extension services that promote protection and paludiculture (growing food on peatlands).
Grant Indigenous communities full property rights and autonomy and support them in monitoring, managing, and enforcing protected areas.
Incorporate peatland protection into national climate plans and international commitments.
Coordinate peatland protection efforts horizontally (e.g., across agencies) and vertically (e.g., across subnational, national, and international efforts), ensuring an inclusive process for local and Indigenous communities.
Use financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and payments for ecosystem services (PES) to protect peatlands from development.
Synthesize water management regulations to ensure local authorities, renters, and landowners coordinate sufficient water levels in peatlands.
Remove harmful agricultural, logging, and mining subsidies.
Map and utilize real-time data to monitor the status and condition of peatland areas.
Invest public funds in peatland conservation, restoration, sustainable management practices, specialized research facilities, and other R&D efforts.
Invest in fire warning, prevention, and response efforts and establish local volunteer fire prevention groups.
Work with farmers, civil society, and businesses to develop high-integrity carbon markets for peatlands.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Government relations and public policy job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Legal job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Practitioners

Refrain from draining or developing intact peatlands.
Invest in peatland conservation, restoration, sustainable management practices, specialized research facilities, and other R&D efforts.
Participate in stakeholder engagements and assist policymakers in designating peatlands, creating regulations, and implementing robust monitoring and enforcement methods.
Grant Indigenous communities full property rights and autonomy and support them in monitoring, managing, and enforcing protected areas.
Ensure protected peatlands don’t displace, violate rights, or reduce access to vital resources for local and Indigenous communities.
Assist in managing and monitoring protected peatlands, utilizing real-time monitoring and satellite data.
Create sustainable use regulations for protected peatland areas that provide resources to the local community.
Conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected peatlands or incentivize drainage.
Create legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over protected peatlands.
Help shift public narratives to mobilize public action and build political will for protecting peatlands by creating educational campaigns and strengthening networks of stakeholders and rightsholders.
Take advantage of existing financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and payments for ecosystem services (PES) to protect peatlands from development.
Offer or create market mechanisms such as biodiversity offsets, payments for ecosystem services, voluntary high-integrity carbon markets, and debt-for-nature swaps to fund peatland protection.
Synthesize water management regulations to ensure local authorities, renters, and landowners coordinate sufficient water levels in peatlands.
Establish coordinating bodies for farmers, landowners, policymakers, and other stakeholders to manage protected areas holistically.
Invest in fire warning, prevention, and response efforts and establish local volunteer fire prevention groups.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Business Leaders

Create peat-free supply chains, utilizing data, information, and the latest technology to inform product sourcing.
Integrate peat-free business and investment policies and practices in net zero strategies.
Only purchase carbon credits from high-integrity, verifiable carbon markets and do not use them as replacements for decarbonizing operations.
Develop financial instruments to invest in peatlands focusing on supporting Indigenous communities.
Conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected peatlands or incentivize drainage.
Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
Invest in and support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for legal protection and public relations.
Leverage political influence to advocate for stronger peatland protection policies at national and international levels.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Climate solutions at work. Project Drawdown (2021)
Drawdown-aligned business framework. Project Drawdown (2021)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Nonprofit Leaders

Ensure operations utilize peat-free products and supply chains.
Advocate for protecting peatlands and for public investments.
Assist in managing and monitoring protected peatlands, utilizing real-time monitoring and satellite data.
Provide financial support for protecting peatlands management, monitoring, and enforcement.
Assist in conducting proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected peatlands or incentivize drainage.
Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over protected peatlands.
Support high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
Share data, information, and investment frameworks that successfully avoid deforestation to support protected peatlands, businesses, and investors.
Help shift public narratives to mobilize public action and build political will for protecting peatlands by creating educational campaigns and strengthening networks of stakeholders and rightsholders.
Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
Invest in and support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for legal protection and public relations.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Investors

Create peat-free investment portfolios, utilizing data, information, and the latest technology to inform investments.
Invest in peatland protection, monitoring, management, and enforcement mechanisms.
Utilize financial mechanisms such biodiversity offsets, payments for ecosystem services, voluntary high-integrity carbon markets, and debt-for-nature swaps to fund peatland protection.
Invest in and support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for legal protection and public relations.
Share data, information, and investment frameworks that successfully avoid investments that drive peatland destruction to support peatlands, other investors, and NGOs.
Help shift public narratives to mobilize public action and build political will for protecting peatlands by creating educational campaigns and strengthening networks of stakeholders and rightsholders.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Ensure operations utilize peat-free products and supply chains.
Advocate for protecting peatlands and for public investments.
Provide technical assistance to low- and middle-income countries and communities to protect peatlands.
Provide financial assistance to low- and middle-income countries and communities for peatland protection.
Assist in managing and monitoring protected peatlands, utilizing real-time monitoring and satellite data.
Assist in conducting proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected peatlands or incentivize drainage.
Support and finance high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over protected peatlands.
Support peatlands, other investors, and NGOs by sharing data, information, and investment frameworks that successfully avoid financing peatland destruction.
Help shift public narratives to mobilize public action and build political will for protecting peatlands by creating educational campaigns and strengthening networks of stakeholders and rightsholders.
Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
Invest in and support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for legal protection and public relations.
Financially support Indigenous land tenure.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Thought Leaders

Advocate for protecting peatlands and for public investments.
Assist in managing and monitoring protected peatlands, utilizing real-time monitoring and satellite data.
Assist in conducting proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected peatlands or incentivize drainage.
Provide technical assistance to low- and middle-income countries and communities to protect peatlands.
Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over protected peatlands.
Support high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
Share data, information, and investment frameworks that successfully avoid deforestation to support protected peatlands, businesses, and investors.
Help shift public narratives to mobilize public action and build political will for protecting peatlands by creating educational campaigns and strengthening networks of stakeholders and rightsholders.
Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
Support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for legal protection and public relations.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Technologists and Researchers

Improve mapping of peatland area, carbon content, emissions data, and monitoring methods, utilizing field measurements, models, satellite imagery, and GIS tools.
Develop land-use planning tools that help avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protecting peatlands or incentivize drainage.
Create tools for local communities to monitor peatlands, such as mobile apps, e-learning platforms, and mapping tools.
Develop verifiable carbon credits using technology such as blockchain to improve the integrity of carbon markets.
Develop supply chain tracking software for investors and businesses seeking to create peat-free portfolios and products.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Communities, Households, and Individuals

Ensure purchases and investments utilize peat-free products and supply chains.
Advocate for protecting peatlands and for public investments.
Invest in fire warning, prevention, and response efforts and establish local volunteer fire prevention groups.
Establish coordinating bodies for farmers, landowners, policymakers, and other stakeholders to manage protected areas holistically.
Assist in managing and monitoring protected peatlands, utilizing real-time monitoring and satellite data.
Assist in conducting proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected peatlands or incentivize drainage.
Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over protected peatlands.
Help shift public narratives to mobilize public action and build political will for protecting peatlands by creating educational campaigns and strengthening networks of stakeholders and rightsholders.
Support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for legal protections and public relations.

Further information:

Peatlands and climate change. IUCN (n.d.)
Best practice book for peatland restoration and climate change mitigation. Pakalne (2021)
Global peatlands assessment: the state of the world’s peatlands. UNEP (2022)

Sources

Economics of peatlands conservation, restoration and sustainable management. Barbier et al. (2021)
Lost in action: Climate friendly use of European peatlands needs coherence and incentive-based policies. Chen et al. (2023)
Peatland protection and restoration are key for climate change mitigation. Humpenöder et al. (2020)
Digging into complexity: the wicked problem of peatland protection. Meyer‐Jürshof et al. (2024)
Tropical peatlands under siege: the need for evidence-based policies and strategies. Murdiyarso et al. (2019)
National peatland strategies in Europe: current status, key themes, and challenges. Nordbeck et al. (2023)
The case of conflicting Finnish peatland management – Skewed representation of nature, participation and policy instruments. Salomaa et al. (2018)
Peatland policy and management strategy to support sustainable development in Indonesia. Syahza et al. (2020)

Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing emissions and maintaining carbon removal: High

There is high scientific consensus that protecting peatland carbon stocks is a critical component of mitigating climate change (Girkin & Davidson, 2024; Harris et al., 2022; Leifield et al., 2019; Noon et al., 2022; Strack et al., 2022). Globally, an estimated 11–12% of peatlands have been drained for uses such as agriculture, forestry, and harvesting of peat for horticulture and fuel, with much more extensive degradation in temperate and tropical regions (~45%) than in boreal regions (~4%) (Fluet-Chouinard et al., 2023; Leifield & Menichetti, 2018; UNEP, 2022). Rates of peatland degradation are highly uncertain, and the effectiveness of PAs at reducing drainage remains unquantified. In lieu of peatland-specific data on the effectiveness of PAs at reducing drainage, we used estimates from Wolf et al. (2021), who found that PAs reduce forest loss by approximately 40.5% at the global average.

Carbon stored in peatlands has been characterized as “irrecoverable carbon” because it takes centuries to millennia to accumulate and could not be rapidly recovered if lost (Goldstein et al., 2020; Noon et al., 2021). Degraded peatlands currently emit an estimated 1.3–1.9 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (excluding fires), equal to ~2–4% of total global emissions (Leifield and Menichetti., 2018; UNEP, 2022). Leifield et al. (2019) projected that without protection or restoration measures, emissions from drained peatlands could produce enough emissions to consume 10–41% of the remaining emissions budget for keeping warming below 1.5–2.0 °C. Peatland drainage had produced a cumulative 80 Gt CO₂‑eq by 2015, equal to nearly two years worth of total global emissions. In a modeling study, Humpenöder et al. (2020) projected that an additional 10.3 Mha of peatlands would be degraded by 2100 in the absence of new protection efforts, increasing annual emissions from degraded peatlands by ~25% (an additional 0.42 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr in their study).

The results presented in this document synthesize findings from 11 global datasets, supplemented by four regional studies on peatland loss rates in Southeast Asia. We recognize that geographic bias in the information underlying global data products creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

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Appendix

This analysis quantifies the emissions associated with peatland degradation and their potential reduction via establishment of Protected Areas (PAs). We leveraged multiple data products, including national-scale peatland area estimates, a peatland distribution map, shapefiles of PAs and Indigenous peoples’ lands, available data on rates of peatland degradation by driver, country-scale data on reductions in ecosystem degradation inside of PAs, maps of biomass carbon stocks, and biome-level emissions factors from disturbed peat soils. This appendix describes the source data products and how they were integrated.

Peatland Extent

The global extent and distribution of peatlands is highly uncertain, and all existing peatland maps have limitations. Importantly, there is no globally accepted definition of a peatland, and different countries and data products use variable thresholds for peat depth and carbon content to define peatlands. The Global Peatland Assessment was a recent comprehensive effort to compile and harmonize existing global peatland area estimates (UNEP, 2022). We rely heavily on two products resulting from this effort: a national-scale dataset of peatland area titled the Global Peatland Database (GPD) and a map of likely peatland areas titled the Global Peatlands Map (GPM; 1 km resolution).

Scaling Procedures

The GPM represents a known overestimate of the global peatland area, so we scaled area estimates derived from spatially explicit analyses dependent on the GPM to match total areas from the GPD. To develop a map of country-level scaling factors, we first calculated the peatland area within each country from the GPM. We calculated the country-level scaling factors as the country-level GPD values divided by the associated GPM values and converted them to a global raster. Some countries had peatland areas represented in either the GPD or GPM, but not both. Four countries had peatland areas in the GPM that were not present in the GPD, which contained 0.51 Mha of peatlands per the GPM. These areas were left unscaled. There were 38 countries with peatland areas in the GPD that did not have areas in the GPM, containing a total 0.70 Mha of peatlands. These areas, which represented 0.14% of the total peatland area in the GPD, were excluded from the scaled maps. We then multiplied the pixel-level GPM values by the scalar raster. Because of the missing countries, this scaling step very slightly overestimated (by 0.4%) total peatlands relative to the GPD. To account for this, we multiplied this intermediate map by a final global scalar (calculated as the global GPM total divided by the GPD total). This process produced a map with the same peatland distribution as the GPM but a total area that summed to that reported in the GPD.

Exclusion of Coastal Peatlands

Many coastal wetlands have peat soils, though the extent of this overlap has not been well quantified. Coastal wetlands are handled in the Protect Coastal Wetlands solution, so we excluded them from this solution to avoid double-counting. Because of the large uncertainties in both the peatland maps and available maps of coastal wetlands, we were not confident that the overlap between the two sets of maps provided a reliable estimate of the proportion of coastal wetlands located on peat soils. Therefore, we took the conservative approach of excluding all peatland pixels that were touching or overlapping with the coastline. This reduced the total peatland area considered in this solution by 5.33 Mha (1.1%). We additionally excluded degraded peatlands from the adoption ceiling and achievable range using country-level data from the GPD. Degraded peatlands will continue to be emissions sources until they are restored, so protection alone will not confer an emissions benefit.

Total Peatland Area

We conducted the analyses by latitude bands (tropical: –23.4° to 23.4°; subtropical: –35° to –23.4° and 23.4° to 35°; temperate: –35° to –50° and 35° to 50°; boreal: <–50° and >50°) in order to retain some spatial variability in emissions factors and degradation rates and drivers. We calculated the total peatland area within each latitude band based on both the scaled and unscaled peatland maps with coastal pixels excluded. We used these values as the adoption ceiling and for subsequent calculations of protected areas.

Protected Peatland Areas

We identified protected peatland areas using the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA, 2024), which contains boundaries for each PA and additional information, including their establishment year and IUCN management category (Ia to VI, not applicable, not reported, and not assigned). For each PA polygon, we extracted the peatland area from the unscaled version of the GPM with coastal pixels removed.

Each PA was classified into climate zones (described above) based on the midpoint between its minimum and maximum latitude. Then, protected peatland areas were summed to the IUCN class-climate zone level, and the proportion of peatlands protected within each was calculated by dividing the protected area by the unscaled total area in each climate zone. The proportion of area protected was then multiplied by the scaled total area for each zone to calculate adoption in hectares within each IUCN class and climate zone. To evaluate trends in adoption over time, we aggregated protected areas by establishment year as reported in the WDPA. We used the same procedure to calculate the proportion of area protected using the unscaled maps, and then scale for the total area by biome.

We used the maps of Indigenous people’s lands from Garnett et al. 2018 to identify Indigenous people’s lands that were not inside of established PAs. The total peatland area within Indigenous people’s lands process as above.

Peatland Degradation and Emissions

Broadly, we estimated annual, per-ha emissions savings from peatland protection as the difference between net carbon exchange in a protected peatland versus an unprotected peatland, accounting for all emissions pathways, the drivers of disturbance, the baseline rates of peatland disturbance, and the effectiveness of PAs at reducing ecosystem degradation. In brief, our calculation of the effectiveness of peatland protection followed Equation S1, in which the annual peatland loss avoided due to protection (%/yr) is multiplied by the 30-yr cumulative sum of emissions per ha of degraded peatland (CO₂‑eq /ha over a 30-yr period). These two terms are described in depth in the subsequent sections.

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Equation A1.

\[ Effectiveness = Peatland\text{ }loss_{avoided} \times \sum_{t=1}^{30}{Emissions} \]

Peatland Degradation Rates

We calculated the avoided rate of peatland loss (%/yr) as the difference between the baseline rate of peatland loss without protection and the estimated rate of peatland loss within PAs (Equation A2), since PAs do not confer complete protection from ecosystem degradation.

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Equation A2.

\[ Peatland\text{ }loss_{avoided} = Peatland\text{ }loss_{baseline} \times Reduction\text{ }in\text{ }loss \]

We compiled baseline estimates of the current rates of peatland degradation from all causes (%/yr) from the existing literature (Table A1). Unfortunately, data on the rate of peatland loss within PAs are not available. However, satellite data have enabled in-depth, global-scale studies of the effectiveness of PAs at reducing tree cover loss. While not all peatlands are forested and degradation dynamics on peatlands can differ from those on forests writ large, these estimates are a reasonable approximation of the effectiveness of PAs at reducing peatland loss. We used the country-level estimates of the proportionate reduction in loss inside versus outside of PAs from Wolf et al. (2021), which we aggregated to latitude bands based on the median latitude of each country (Table A1).

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Table A1. Biome-level annual baseline rate of peatland loss, the effectiveness of protection at reducing loss, and the annual avoided rate of peatland loss under protection.

Climate Zone	Mean Annual Peatland Loss (%/yr)	Proportionate Reduction in Loss Under Protection	Avoided Loss Under Protection (%/yr)
Boreal	0.3%	0.44	0.13%
Subtropic	1.2%	0.60	0.73%
Temperate	0.6%	0.56	0.33%
Tropic	1.5%	0.41	0.63%

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Emissions Factors for Peatland Degradation

Equation S3 provides an overview of the calculation of emissions from degraded peatlands. In brief, we calculated cumulative emissions as the biomass carbon stock plus the 30-yr total of CO₂‑equivalent fluxes from peat oxidation (P_ox), dissolved organic carbon losses (DOC), methane from drainage ditches (M_ditch), on-field methane (M_field), on-field nitrous oxide (N) and the lost net sequestration from an intact peatland, accounting for carbon sequestration in peat and methane emissions from intact peatlands (Seq_loss).

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Equation A3.

\[ \sum_{t=1}^{30}{Emissions} = Biomass + \sum_{t=1}^{30}{(P_{ox} + DOC + M_{ditch} + M_{field} + N + Seq_{loss})} \]

The IPCC Tier 1 emissions factors for peatland degradation are disaggregated by climate zone (tropical, temperate, and boreal), soil fertility status (nutrient-poor versus nutrient rich), and the driver of degradation (many subclasses of forestry, cropland, grassland, and peat extraction) (IPCC 2014; Tables 2.1–2.5). Table III.5 of Annex III of the Global Peatlands Assessment provides a summarized set of emissions factors based directly on the IPCC values but aggregated to the four coarser classes of degradation drivers listed above (UNEP, 2022), which we use for our analysis. They include the following pathways: CO₂ from peat oxidation, off-site emissions from lateral transport of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), methane emissions from the field and drainage ditches, and nitrous oxide emissions from the field. Particulate organic carbon (POC) losses may be substantial, but were not included in the IPCC methodology due to uncertainties about the fate of transported POC. These emissions factors are reported as annual rates per disturbed hectare, and emissions from these pathways continue over long periods of time.

Three additional pathways that are not included in the IPCC protocol are relevant to the emissions accounting for this analysis: the loss of carbon sequestration potential from leaving the peatland intact, the methane emissions that occur from intact peatlands, and the emissions from removal of the vegetation overlying peat soils. Leifield et al. (2019) reported the annual net carbon uptake per hectare of intact peatlands, including sequestration of carbon in peat minus naturally occurring methane emissions due to the anoxic conditions. If the peatland is not disturbed, these methane emissions and carbon sequestration will persist indefinitely on an annual basis.

We accounted for emissions from removal of biomass using a separate protocol than emissions occurring from the peat soil due to differences in the temporal dynamics of loss. While all other emissions from peat occur on an annual basis and continue for many decades or longer, emissions from biomass occur relatively quickly. Biomass clearing produces a rapid pulse of emissions from labile carbon pools followed by a declining, but persistent, rate of emissions as more recalcitrant carbon pools decay over subsequent years. The entire biomass carbon stock is likely to be lost within 30 years. Average biomass carbon stocks over the extent of the peatland distribution in the GPM were calculated by latitude band based on the above and below ground biomass carbon stock data from Spawn et al. (2020). We presumed 100% of the biomass carbon stock is lost from peatland degradation, though in many cases some amount of biomass remains following degradation, depending on the terminal land use.

Peatland Degradation Drivers

Emissions from peatland loss depend on the driver of degradation (e.g., forestry, cropland, peat extraction; IPCC 2014). The GPD contains national-scale estimates of historical peatland loss by driver, which we used to calculate weights for each driver, reflecting the proportion of peatland loss attributable to each driver by latitude band. We took the weighted average of the driver-specific peatland emissions factors, calculated as the sum of the products of the weights and the driver-specific emissions factors.

Appendix References

IPCC Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. (2014). 2013 supplement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories: Wetlands (T. Hiraishi, T. Krug, K. Tanabe, N. Srivastava, J. Baasansuren, M. Fukuda, & T. G. Troxler, Eds.). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/Wetlands_Supplement_Entire_Report.pdf

Leifeld, J., Wüst-Galley, C., & Page, S. (2019). Intact and managed peatland soils as a source and sink of GHGs from 1850 to 2100. Nature Climate Change, 9(12), 945–947. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0615-5

Spawn, S. A., Sullivan, C. C., Lark, T. J., & Gibbs, H. K. (2020). Harmonized global maps of above and belowground biomass carbon density in the year 2010. Scientific Data, 7(1), 112. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0444-4

UNEP. (2022). Global peatlands assessment: The state of the world’s peatlands: Evidence for action toward the conservation, restoration, and sustainable management of peatlands. https://www.unep.org/resources/global-peatlands-assessment-2022

UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2024), Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) and World Database on Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (WD-OECM) [Online], Accessed November 2024, Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net.

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Updated Date

Wed, 09/17/2025 - 12:00

Read more about Protect Peatlands

Protect Grasslands & Savannas

Submitted by Drawdown Admin on Sat, 02/15/2025 - 15:02

Sector

Food, Agriculture, Land & Ocean (FALO)

Mode

Cut Emissions

Cluster

Protect & Manage Ecosystems

Image

Coming Soon

Summary

This solution focuses on the legal protection of grassland and savanna ecosystems through the establishment of protected areas (PAs), which are managed with the primary goal of conserving nature and land tenure for Indigenous peoples. These protections reduce grassland degradation, which preserves carbon stored in soils and vegetation and enables continued carbon sequestration by healthy grasslands.

This solution only includes non-coastal grasslands and savannas on mineral soils in areas that do not naturally support forests. Salt marshes are included in the Protect Coastal Wetlands solution, grasslands on peat soils are included in the Protect Peatlands solution, grasslands that are the product of deforestation are included in the Restore Forests solution, and grasslands that have been converted to other uses are included in the Restore Grasslands and Savannas solution.

Overview

Grasslands, also called steppes (Europe and Asia), pampas (South America), and prairies (North America), are ecosystems dominated by herbaceous plants that have relatively low tree or shrub cover. Savannas are ecosystems characterized by low-density tree cover that allows for a grass subcanopy (Bardgett et al., 2021; Parente et al., 2024). Grasslands and savannas span arid to mesic climates from the tropics to the tundra; many depend on periodic fires and grazing by large herbivores. The dataset used to define grassland extent for this analysis classifies areas with sparse vegetation, including some deserts and tundra, as grasslands (Parente et al., 2024), but excludes planted and intensively managed livestock pastures. Hereafter we refer to all of these ecosystems, including savannas, as “grasslands.”

Historically, grasslands covered up to 40% of global land area, depending on the definition used (Bardgett et al., 2021; Parente et al., 2024; Suttie et al., 2005). An estimated 46% of temperate grasslands and 24% of tropical grasslands have been converted to cropland or lost to afforestation or development (Hoekstra et al., 2004). Nearly half of remaining grasslands are estimated to be degraded due to over- or undergrazing, woody plant encroachment, climate change, invasive species, addition of fertilizers or legumes for forage production, and changing fire regimes (Bardgett et al., 2021; Briggs et al., 2005; Gang et al., 2014; Ratajczak et al., 2012).

Grasslands store carbon primarily in soils and below-ground biomass (Bai & Cotrufo, 2022). A large fraction of the carbon that grasses take up is allocated to root growth, which over time is incorporated into soil organic matter (Bai & Cotrufo, 2022). When native vegetation is removed and land is tilled to convert grasslands to croplands, carbon from biomass and soils is lost as CO₂.

Estimates of total carbon stocks in grasslands range from 388–1,257 Gt CO₂‑eq (Conant et al., 2017; Goldstein et al., 2020; Poeplau, 2021). Soil carbon generally persists over long timescales and takes decades to rebuild, with one study estimating that 132 Gt CO₂‑eq in grasslands is vulnerable to loss, and that 25 Gt CO₂‑eq of that would be irrecoverable over a 30-year timeframe (Goldstein et al., 2020). Our analysis did not quantify the impacts of grazing or woody plant encroachment on grassland carbon stocks, which can be mixed, though grazing is discussed further in the Improve Livestock Grazing solution (Barger et al., 2011; Conant et al., 2017; Jackson et al., 2002; Stanley et al., 2024).

Long-term legal protection of grasslands through PAs and Indigenous peoples’ land tenure reduces conversion and therefore avoids conversion-related pulses of GHG emissions from plowing soils and removing biomass. We consider grasslands to be protected if they are 1) formally designated as PAs (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2024), or 2) mapped as Indigenous peoples’ lands (IPLs) by Garnett et al. (2018) (Appendix). PAs vary in their allowed uses, ranging from strict wilderness preserves to sustainable-use areas that allow for some natural resource extraction; all levels were included in this analysis (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2024).

IPLs and PAs reduce, but do not eliminate, ecosystem loss (Baragwanath et al., 2020; Blackman & Viet 2018; Li et al., 2024; McNicol et al., 2023; Sze et al. 2022; Wolf et al., 2023; Wade et al., 2020). Improving management to further reduce land use change within PAs and ensure ecologically appropriate grazing and fire regimes is a critical component of grassland protection (Jones et al., 2018; Meng et al., 2023; Vijay et al., 2018; Visconti et al., 2019; Watson et al., 2014). Additionally, market-based strategies and other policies can complement legal protection by reducing incentives for grassland conversion (e.g., Garett et al., 2019; Golub et al., 2021; Heilmayr et al., 2020; Lambin et al., 2018; Levy et al., 2023; Macdonald et al., 2024; Marin et al., 2022; Villoria et al., 2022; West et al., 2023). Our analyses are based on legal protection because the effectiveness of market-based strategies is difficult to quantify, but these strategies will be further discussed in an additional appendix (coming soon).

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Credits

Lead Fellow

Avery Driscoll

Contributors

Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Daniel Jasper
Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

Aiyana Bodi
Hannah Henkin
Ted Otte
Christina Richardson, Ph.D.
Christina Swanson, Ph.D.
Paul C. West, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

We estimated that protecting 1 ha of grasslands avoids 0.06–0.90 t CO₂‑eq/yr, with emissions reductions tending to be higher in boreal and temperate regions than tropical and subtropical regions (100-yr GWP; Table 1a–d; Appendix).

We estimated effectiveness as the avoided emissions attributable to the reduction in grassland conversion conferred by protection (Equation 1; Appendix), assuming that converted grasslands are used as croplands due to data constraints. Although some grasslands are converted to intensively managed pastures or urban development, we assumed that the total land area converted to infrastructure is relatively small and emissions associated with conversion to planted pastures are comparable to those from conversion to cropland.

We aggregated estimates of avoided grassland conversion attributable to PAs from Li et al. (2024) to the biome level (Grassland loss_avoided), then multiplied the result by the total emissions over 30 years from 1 ha of grassland converted to cropland. These emissions include the change in biomass and soil carbon on conversion to cropland (Carbon_emissions), 30 years of lost carbon sequestration potential (Carbon_uptake), and nitrous oxide emissions associated with soil carbon loss, which is a small component of total emissions (see Appendix for details; Chang et al. 2021; Huang et al., 2024; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2019; Poggio et al., 2021; Spawn et al., 2020).

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Equation 1.

\[Effectiveness=(Grassland\text{ }loss_{avoided}) \times (Carbon_{emissions} + Carbon_{uptake}) \]

The effectiveness of grassland protection as defined here reflects only a small percentage of the carbon stored in grassland because we accounted for the likelihood that the grassland would be converted without protection. Grassland protection is particularly impactful for areas at high risk of conversion.

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Table 1a–d. Effectiveness of grassland protection at avoiding emissions and sequestering carbon. Regional differences in values are driven by variation in carbon stocks, baseline rates of grassland conversion, and the effectiveness of PAs at reducing conversion.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/ha/yr

Estimate

0.90

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/ha/yr

Estimate

0.54

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/ha/yr

Estimate

0.13

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/ha/yr

Estimate

0.06

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Cost

The costs of grassland protection include up-front costs of land acquisition and ongoing costs of management and enforcement. The market price of land reflects the opportunity cost of not using the land for other purposes, such as agriculture or urban development. Data related to the costs of grassland protection are very limited.

We estimated that grassland protection provides a net cost savings of approximately US$0.53/ha/yr, or US$1.58/t CO₂‑eq avoided (Table 2). This estimate reflects global averages rather than regionally specific values, and some data are not specific to grasslands. Costs and revenues are highly variable across regions, depending on the costs of land and enforcement and the potential for tourism.

Dienerstein et al. (2024) estimated the initial cost of establishing a PA for 60 high-biodiversity ecoregions. Amongst the 20 regions that contain grasslands, the median acquisition cost was US$897/ha, which we amortized over 30 years. Costs of PA maintenance were estimated at US$9–17/ha/yr (Bruner et al., 2004; Waldron et al., 2020), though these estimates were not specific to grasslands. Additionally, these estimates reflect the costs of effective enforcement and management, but many existing PAs lack adequate funds for effective enforcement (Adams et al., 2019; Barnes et al., 2018; Burner et al., 2004).

Protecting grasslands can generate revenue through increased tourism. Waldron et al. (2020) estimated that, across all ecosystems, tourism revenues directly attributable to PA establishment were US$43 ha/yr, not including downstream revenues from industries that benefit from increased tourism. Inclusion of a tourism multiplier would substantially increase the estimated economic benefits of grassland protection.

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Table 2. Cost per unit of climate impact for grassland protection. Negative value indicates cost savings.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis

median

-1.58

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Learning Curve

A learning curve is defined here as falling costs with increased adoption. The costs of grassland protection do not fall with increasing adoption, so there is no learning curve for this solution.

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Speed of Action

The term speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is separate from the speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Protect Grasslands is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It reduces pulses of emissions from the conversion of grasslands, offering the potential to deliver a more rapid impact than gradual and delayed solutions. Because emergency brake solutions can deliver their climate benefits quickly, they can help accelerate our efforts to address dangerous levels of climate change. For this reason, they are a high priority.

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Caveats

Permanence

Permanence is a caveat for emissions avoidance through grassland protection that is not addressed in this analysis. Protected grasslands could be converted to agricultural uses or other development if legal protections are reversed or inadequately enforced, resulting in the loss of stored carbon. Many PAs allow for some human uses, and PA management that is not tailored to grazing needs, fire dependency, or woody plant encroachment can reduce carbon stocks within PAs (Barger et al., 2011; Chang et al., 2021; Conant et al, 2017; Jackson et al., 2002; Kemp et al., 2013; Popleau et al., 2011). Climate change is also causing widespread degradation of grasslands, including reductions in vegetation productivity that may reduce carbon storage over the long term even in the absence of additional disturbance (Chang et al., 2021; Gang et al., 2014; Li et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2016). Climate change and aridification may also cause expansion of grassland extent (Berg & McColl, 2021; Feng & Fu, 2014; Huang et al., 2016), with mixed but overall negative impacts on terrestrial carbon uptake (Yao et al., 2020).

Additionality

Additionality is another important caveat for emissions avoidance through ecosystem protection (Ahlering et al., 2016; Williams et al., 2023). In this analysis, additionality was addressed by using baseline rates of grassland conversion in calculating effectiveness. Evaluating additionality is challenging and remains an active area of research.

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Current Adoption

A total of 555 Mha of grasslands (excluding grasslands on peat soils, grasslands that are also coastal wetlands, and grasslands created through deforestation) are currently located within PAs, and an additional 832 Mha are located on IPLs not classified as PAs (Table 3e). That means that ~48% of grasslands are under some form of protection globally, with 6% in strict PAs, 13% in non-strict PAs, and 29% on IPLs that are not also PAs. As of 2023, tropical regions had the largest extent of protected grasslands (583 Mha), followed by boreal regions (339 Mha), and subtropical regions (293 Mha). In temperate regions, only 24% of grasslands (172 Mha) were under any form of protection (Table 3a–d).

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Table 3a–e. Grassland under protection by biome (circa 2023). Estimates are provided for three different forms of protection: “strict” protection, including IUCN classes I and II; “non-strict” protection, including all other IUCN categories; and IPLs outside of PAs. Regional values may not sum to global totals due to rounding.

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs	52,564,000
Non-strict PAs	82,447,000
IPLs	203,579,000

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs	30,242,000
Non-strict PAs	51,033,000
IPLs	90,973,000

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs	31,949,000
Non-strict PAs	83,745,000
IPLs	177,301,000

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs	56,233,000
Non-strict PAs	166,356,000
IPLs	359,997,000

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs	170,988,000
Non-strict PAs	383,581,000
IPLs	831,850,000

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Adoption Trend

We calculated the annual rate of new grassland protection based on the year of PA establishment for areas established in 2000–2020. The median annual increase in grassland protection was 8.1 Mha (mean 11.4 Mha; Table 4e). This represents a roughly 1.5%/yr increase in grasslands within PAs, or protection of an additional 0.3%/yr of total global grasslands.

Grassland protection has proceeded more quickly in tropical regions (median increase of 4.0 Mha/yr) than in other climate zones (median increases of 1.2–1.6 Mha/yr) (Table 4a–d). Although the global rate of grassland protection fluctuates from year to year, the median rate has remained stable in recent decades at 10.2 Mha/yr from 2000–2009 and 10.4 Mha/yr from 2010–2020.

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Table 4a–e. Adoption trend for grassland protection in PAs of any IUCN class (2000–2020). The 25th and 75th percentiles reflect only interannual variance (ha grassland protected/yr). IPLs are not included in this analysis due to a lack of data.

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile	659,000
median (50th percentile)	1,338,000
mean	2,152,000
75th percentile	3,007,000

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile	692,000
median (50th percentile)	1,178,000
mean	1,728,000
75th percentile	1,715,000

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile	940,000
median (50th percentile)	1,580,000
mean	2,791,000
75th percentile	3,226,000

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile	2,628,000
median (50th percentile)	4,044,000
mean	4,711,000
75th percentile	5,774,000

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile	4,919,000
median (50th percentile)	8,140,000
mean	11,382,000
75th percentile	13,722,000

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Adoption Ceiling

Including grasslands that are currently protected, we estimated that there are approximately 2,891 Mha of natural grasslands that are not counted in a different solution (Table 5e). This ceiling includes 1,505 Mha that are not currently under any form of protection. This includes 533 Mha of eligible grasslands in boreal regions, 723 Mha in temperate regions, 626 Mha in the subtropics, and 1,008 Mha in the tropics (Table 5a–d).

To develop these estimates, we relied on the global grassland map from Parente et al. (2024), excluded areas that were included in the Protect Forests, Protect Peatlands, and Protect Coastal Wetlands solutions, and excluded areas that were historically forested according to the Terrestrial Ecoregions of The World dataset (Olson et al., 2001; Appendix). While it is not socially, politically, or economically realistic that all remaining grasslands could be protected, these values represent the technical upper limit to adoption of this solution.

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Table 5a–e. Adoption ceiling: upper limit for adoption of legal protection of grasslands by biome. Values may not sum to global totals due to rounding.

Unit: ha protected

Estimate

533,033,000

Unit: ha protected

Estimate

723,429,000

Unit: ha protected

Estimate

626,474,000

Unit: ha protected

Estimate

1,008,375,000

Unit: ha protected

Estimate

2,891,311,000

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Achievable Adoption

We assigned a low achievable level of a minimum of 50% of grasslands in each climate zone (Table 6a–e). For boreal and tropical regions, in which 64% and 58%, respectively, of grasslands are already protected, we assume no change in PA (Table 6a, d). For temperate areas, the low achievable target reflects an increase of 189 Mha, or more than a doubling of the current PA extent (Table 6b). In subtropical zones, this target reflects an additional 20 Mha under protection (Table 6c). We assigned a high achievable level of 70% of grasslands in each climate zone, reflecting an additional 637 Mha of protected grasslands globally, or a 46% increase in the current PA extent (Table 6a–e).

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Table 6a–e. Range of achievable adoption of grassland protection by biome.

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption	338,590,000
Achievable – Low	338,590,000
Achievable – High	373,123,000
Adoption ceiling	533,033,000

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption	172,248,000
Achievable – Low	361,715,000
Achievable – High	506,400,000
Adoption ceiling	723,429,000

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption	292,995,000
Achievable – Low	313,237,000
Achievable – High	438,532,000
Adoption ceiling	626,474,000

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption	582,586,000
Achievable – Low	582,586,000
Achievable – High	705,863,000
Adoption ceiling	1,008,375,000

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption	1,386,419,000
Achievable – Low	1,596,128,000
Achievable – High	2,023,918,000
Adoption ceiling	2,891,311,000

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We estimated that PAs currently reduce GHG emissions from grassland conversion by 0.468 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Table 7a–e). Achievable levels of grassland protection have the potential to reduce emissions 0.572–0.704 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, with a technical upper bound of 1.006 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Table 7a–e). This indicates that further emissions reductions of 0.105–0.237 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr are achievable. For these benefits to be realized, grazing, fire, and woody plant management must be responsive to local grassland needs and compatible with the maintenance of carbon stocks. The solutions Improve Livestock Grazing and Deploy Silvopasture address the climate impacts of some aspects of grassland management.

Few other sources explicitly quantify the climate impacts of grassland protection, but the available data are roughly aligned with our estimates of additional mitigation potential. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimated that avoided conversion of grasslands to croplands could reduce emissions by 0.03–0.7 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Nabuurs et al., 2022). Griscom et al. (2017) estimated that avoided grassland conversion could save 0.12 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr emissions from soil carbon only (not counting loss of vegetation, sequestration potential, or nitrous oxide), though their analysis did not account for current protection and relied on older estimates of grassland conversion.

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Table 7a–e. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption	0.305
Achievable – Low	0.305
Achievable – High	0.336
Adoption Ceiling	0.481

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption	0.093
Achievable – Low	0.195
Achievable – High	0.273
Adoption Ceiling	0.390

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption	0.037
Achievable – Low	0.039
Achievable – High	0.055
Adoption Ceiling	0.078

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption	0.033
Achievable – Low	0.033
Achievable – High	0.040
Adoption Ceiling	0.057

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption	0.468
Achievable – Low	0.572
Achievable – High	0.704
Adoption Ceiling	1.006

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Additional Benefits

Floods

Grassland plants often have deep root systems, leading to high soil carbon stocks (Sloat et al., 2025). These roots can absorb water and reduce discharge into surrounding water bodies during periods of excessive rain (GRaSS, 2024).

Droughts

Different grassland plant species respond differently to drought. Differences in precipitation seasonality due to drought may allow some grass species to dominate over others (Knapp et al., 2020). Evidence suggests that higher species diversity can enhance grassland resilience to drought (Smith et al., 2024; Yu et al., 2025). Additionally, the deep root systems of grassland plants contribute to the drought resilience of these ecosystems (Sloat et al., 2025). More resilient, biodiverse grasslands are associated with greater ecosystem stability and productivity, and can maintain ecosystem services during periods of extreme weather, such as drought (Isbell et al, 2015; Lefcheck et al., 2015).

Income and Work

Grasslands are an important source of income for surrounding communities through tourism and other ecosystem services (Bengtsson et al., 2019). Protecting grasslands sustains the long-term health of the ecosystem, which is especially important for subsistence livelihoods that depend on intact landscapes for incomes (Pelser, 2015). Sources of income that are directly generated from grasslands include: meat, milk, wool, and leather and thatching materials to make brooms, hats, and baskets (GRaSS, 2024; Pelser, 2015). People living near grasslands often rely on grazing livestock for food and income (GRaSS, 2024, Kemp 2013, Su et al., 2019). Grasslands in China support the livelihoods of about 16 million people, many of whom live in poverty (Kemp et al., 2013). The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is especially important for grazing livestock (Su et al., 2019). Evidence has shown that declines in grassland productivity are also linked to declines in income (Kemp et al., 2013).

Food Security

Grasslands can contribute to food security by providing food for livestock and supporting pollinators for nearby agriculture (Sloat et al., 2025). Grassland-based grazing systems are important sources of food for populations in low and middle-income countries, particularly in Oceania, Latin America, the Caribbean, the Middle East, North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa (Resare Sahlin et al., 2023). Grasslands can support the food security of smallholder farmers and pastoralists in these regions by providing meat and milk (GRaSS, 2024; Michalk, 2018).

Equality

Grasslands are central to many cultures, and grassland protection can support shared cultural and spiritual values for many populations. They can be sources of identity for people living in or near grassland ecosystems who have strong connections with the land (Bengtsson et al., 2019, GRaSS, 2024). For example, in Mongolia grasslands sustain horses, which are central to the cultural identities and livelihoods of communities, particularly nomadic populations (Kemp et al., 2014). Grasslands can also be an important source of shared identity for pastoralists who move herds to graze based on seasonal cycles during the year (Liechti & Biber, 2016).

Nature Protection

Many grasslands are biodiversity hot spots (Petermann & Buzhdygan, 2021; Su et al., 2019). Numerous plant and animal species are endemic to grasslands, meaning they have limited habitat ranges and can easily become endangered with habitat degradation (Sloat et al., 2025). In Germany, grasslands in PAs were found to have higher plant diversity than in non-PAs (Kachler et al., 2023). Grasslands are important habitats for bird species that rely on them for breeding grounds (GRaSS, 2024; Nugent et al., 2022).

Land Resources

The unique, deep root structures of some grassland plants can improve soil stability and reduce soil erosion (Bengtsson et al., 2019; GRaSS, 2024; Kemp et al., 2013).

Water Resources

Grasslands can regulate water flows and water storage. The root systems can help rainwater reach deep underground, recharging groundwater stores (Bengtsson et al., 2019; GRaSS, 2024).

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Risks

Relying on grassland protection as an emissions reduction strategy can be undermined if ecosystem conversion that is not allowed inside a PA simply takes place outside of it instead (Aherling et al., 2016; Asamoah et al., 2021). If such leakage leads to conversion of ecosystems that have higher carbon stocks, such as forests, peatlands, or coastal wetlands, total emissions may increase. Combining grassland protection with policies to reduce incentives for ecosystem conversion can help avoid leakage.

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Interactions with Other Solutions

Reinforcing

PAs often include multiple ecosystems. Grassland protection will likely lead to protection of other ecosystems within the same areas, and the health of nearby ecosystems is improved by the services provided by intact grasslands.

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These solutions reduce pressure to convert grasslands to agricultural use, easing the expansion of PAs.

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Restored grasslands need protection to reduce the risk of future disturbance, and the health of protected grasslands can be improved through the restoration of adjacent degraded grasslands.

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Restore Grasslands & Savannas

Grazing by large herbivores is critical for the health of many grasslands, and healthy grasslands are needed to support restoration of large herbivores.

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Boost Large Herbivore Restoration

Competing

Additional crop deployment can increase demand for agricultural land, reducing the grassland area available for protection.

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Grassland protection may reduce land availability for renewable energy infrastructure.

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Dashboard

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha of grassland or savanna protected

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

0.9

Adoption

units

Current 3.386×10⁸ 03.386×10⁸3.731×10⁸

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided & Carbon Removed

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.305 0.3050.336

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

-2

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂, N₂O

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha of grassland or savanna protected

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

0.54

Adoption

units

Current 1.722×10⁸ 03.617×10⁸5.064×10⁸

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided & Carbon Removed

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.093 0.1950.273

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

-2

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂, N₂O

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha of grassland or savanna protected

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

0.13

Adoption

units

Current 2.93×10⁸ 03.132×10⁸4.385×10⁸

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided & Carbon Removed

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.037 0.0390.055

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

-2

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂, N₂O

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

ha of grassland or savanna protected

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr

0.06

Adoption

units

Current 5.826×10⁸ 05.826×10⁸7.059×10⁸

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided & Carbon Removed

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.033 0.0330.04

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

-2

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂, N₂O

Trade-offs

Establishment of PAs may limit local access to grasslands for grazing or other forms of income generation, although effective management plans should account for the grazing needs of the protected grassland. Second, allocation of budgetary resources to PA establishment may divert resources from maintenance and enforcement of existing PAs. Finally, protection of grasslands may reduce land availability for renewable energy infrastructure, such as solar and wind power.

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Action Word

Protect

Solution Title

Grasslands & Savannas

Classification

Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Set scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protections, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; incorporate these targets into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
Ensure public procurement uses products and supply chains that do not disrupt PAs and grasslands; ensure public development projects do not disturb PAs and grasslands.
Grant Indigenous communities full property rights and autonomy and support them in monitoring, managing, and enforcing PAs; adhere to principles of free, prior, and informed consent when engaging with Indigenous communities and lands.
Manage fire, biodiversity, and grazing in protected grasslands in accordance with ecological needs, learning from and working with Indigenous communities.
Ensure PAs don’t displace, violate rights, or reduce access to vital resources for local and Indigenous communities.
Expand regulatory, legal, and technical support for privately protected grasslands.
When expanding PAs, acquire relevant adjacent properties first, if possible, to increase connectivity and reduce costs; grant restored grasslands protected status.
Invest in PA infrastructure, monitoring, management, and enforcement mechanisms.
Ban or restrict overgrazing and extractive harvesting while allowing for sustainable use of PAs from Indigenous and local communities; compensate herders for lost grazing lands, if necessary.
Ensure PAs are adequately financed and, if applicable, provide financing for low- and middle-income countries and communities for grassland protections.
Ensure incentives and/or compensation for reducing livestock or protecting grasslands are evenly distributed with particular attention to low- and middle-income farmers and communities.
Use financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, payments for ecosystem services (PES), and debt-for-nature swaps to protect grasslands from development.
Remove harmful subsidies for agricultural, grazing, mining, and other resource extraction.
Use comanagement, community-governed, land-trust, and/or privately protected models to expand PAs, increase connectivity, and engage communities; ensure a participatory approach to designating and managing PAs.
Use real-time monitoring, ground-level sensors, and satellite data to enforce protections, ensuring adequate baseline data are gathered if possible.
Ensure budgets adequately split financing between expanding PAs and managing PAs; prioritize quality management of existing PAs before expanding new designations except in cases where nonprotected land conversion presents the most serious risks to people, the climate, or biodiversity.
Conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid roads and other development projects that may interfere with PAs or incentivize development.
Create processes for legal grievances, dispute resolution, and restitution.
Create programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.
Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.

Further information:

Weighing the benefits of expanding protected areas versus managing existing ones. Adams et al. (2019)
Collective property rights reduce deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Baragwanath and Bayi (2020)
Prevent perverse outcomes from global protected area policy. Barnes et al. (2018)
Financial costs and shortfalls of managing and expanding Protected-Area systems in developing countries. Bruner et al. (2004)
Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)
Privately protected areas increase global protected area coverage and connectivity. Palfrey et al. (2022)
Government relations and public policy job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Legal job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)

Practitioners

Set scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protection, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; advocate to incorporate these targets into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
Improve monitoring and evaluation standards for grassland ecologies and the impacts from animal agriculture.
Ensure incentives and/or compensation for reducing livestock or protecting grasslands are evenly distributed with particular attention to low- and middle-income farmers and communities.
Ensure PAs are adequately financed and, if applicable, provide financing for low- and middle-income countries and communities for grassland protections.
When expanding PAs, acquire relevant adjacent properties first, if possible, to increase connectivity and reduce costs.
Use financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, PES, and debt-for-nature swaps to protect grasslands from development.
Empower local communities to manage grasslands and ensure a participatory approach to designating and managing PAs.
Use comanagement, community-governed, land-trust, and/or privately-protected models to expand PAs, increase connectivity, and engage communities.
Ban or restrict overgrazing and extractive harvesting while allowing sustainable use of PAs by Indigenous and local communities; compensate herders for lost grazing lands if necessary.
Use real-time monitoring, ground-level sensors, and satellite data to enforce protections, ensuring adequate baseline data are gathered if possible.
Ensure budgets adequately split financing between expanding PAs and managing PAs; prioritize quality management of existing PAs before expanding new designations - except in cases where non-protected land conversion presents the most serious risk to people, the climate, or biodiversity.
Create education programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.
Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.

Further information:

Weighing the benefits of expanding protected areas versus managing existing ones. Adams et al. (2019)
Collective property rights reduce deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Baragwanath and Bayi (2020)
Prevent perverse outcomes from global protected area policy. Barnes et al. (2018)
Financial costs and shortfalls of managing and expanding Protected-Area systems in developing countries. Bruner et al. (2004)
Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)
Privately protected areas increase global protected area coverage and connectivity. Palfrey et al. (2022)

Business Leaders

Ensure operations, development, and supply chains are not degrading grasslands or interfering with PA management.
Integrate grassland protection into net-zero strategies, if relevant.
Commit and adhere to minimizing irrecoverable carbon loss through development projects, supply-chain management, and general operations.
Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
Only purchase carbon credits from high-integrity, verifiable carbon markets, and do not use them as replacements for decarbonizing operations or claim them as “offsets.”
Consider donating to established grassland protection funds in place of carbon credits.
Take advantage of financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and PES to grasslands from development.
Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
Invest in and support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for management, legal protection, and public relations.
Leverage political influence to advocate for stronger grassland protection policies at national and international levels.
Conduct proactive land use planning to avoid roads and other development projects that may interfere with PAs.
Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.

Further information:

Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)
Climate solutions at work. Project Drawdown (2021)
Drawdown-aligned business framework. Project Drawdown (2021)

Nonprofit Leaders

Advocate for enhanced enforcement of existing PAs and IPLs, expansion of new PAs and IPLs, and for more public investments.
Advocate for scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protections, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; advocate for these goals to be incorporated into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
Help manage and monitor protected grasslands using real-time monitoring, ground-based sensors, and satellite data.
Provide financial support for monitoring and enforcement of PAs and IPLs.
Help conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected grasslands or incentivize destruction.
Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over PAs or IPLs.
Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
Invest in and support the capacity of Indigenous and local communities for management, legal protection, and public relations.
Use or advocate for financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and PES to protect grasslands from development.
Improve monitoring and evaluation standards for grassland ecologies and the impacts from animal agriculture.
Help classify and map grasslands, carbon stocks, and biodiversity data and create local, national, and international standards for classification.
Work with insurance companies to reduce insurance premiums for properties that protect or maintain grasslands.
Create and manage a global database of protected grasslands, grassland loss, restoration, and management initiatives.
Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.
Create programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.

Further information:

Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)

Investors

Ensure investment portfolios do not degrade grasslands or interfere with PAs or IPLs, using data, information, and the latest technology to inform investments.
Consider any project that releases irrecoverable carbon loss through the destruction of ecosystems like grasslands to be high risk, avoid investments in these projects as much as possible, and divest from any companies violating this principle.
Invest in grassland protection, monitoring, management, and enforcement mechanisms.
Use financial mechanisms such as credible biodiversity offsets, payments for ecosystem services, voluntary high-integrity carbon markets, and debt-for-nature swaps to fund grassland protection.
Invest in and support the capacity of Indigenous and local communities for management, legal protection, and public relations.
Share with other investors and nongovernmental organizations data, information, and investment frameworks that successfully avoid investments that drive grassland destruction.
Provide favorable loans to Indigenous communities and entrepreneurs and businesses protecting grasslands.
Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.

Further information:

Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Advocate for enhanced enforcement of existing PAs and IPLs, expansion of new PAs and IPLs, and more public investments.
Advocate for scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protections, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; advocate for these goals to be incorporated into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
Use or advocate for financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and PES to protect grasslands from development.
Help manage and monitor protected grassland, using real-time monitoring and satellite data.
Provide technical assistance to low- and middle-income countries and communities for grasslands protection.
Provide financial assistance to low- and middle-income countries and communities for grasslands protection.
Provide financial support to organizations and institutions developing and deploying monitoring technology and conducting grassland research.
Help conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected grasslands or incentivize destruction.
Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
Invest in and support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for management, legal protection, and public relations.
Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over PAs or IPLs.
Help classify and map grasslands, carbon stocks, and biodiversity data and create local, national, and international standards for classification.
Work with insurance companies to reduce insurance premiums for properties that protect or maintain grasslands.
Create and manage a global database of protected grasslands, grassland loss, restoration, and management initiatives.
Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.
Create education programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.

Further information:

Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)

Thought Leaders

Help change the narrative around grasslands by highlighting their value and benefits such as supporting human life, biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, and climate regulation.
Advocate for enhanced enforcement of existing PAs and IPLs, expansion of new PAs and IPLs, and public investments.
Advocate for scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protections, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; advocate for these to be incorporated into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
Advocate for or use financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, PES, and debt-for-nature swaps to protect grasslands from development.
Help manage and monitor protected grasslands using real-time monitoring and satellite data.
Help conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected grasslands or incentivize conversion.
Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over PAs or IPLs.
Help improve monitoring and evaluation standards for grassland ecologies and impacts from animal agriculture.
Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon and biodiversity markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
Support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for legal protection, management, and public relations.
Help classify and map grasslands, carbon stocks, and biodiversity data and create local, national, and international standards for classification.
Create and manage a global database of protected grasslands, grassland loss, restoration, and management initiatives.
Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.
Create programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.

Further information:

Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)

Technologists and Researchers

Develop standardized indicators of grassland degradation.
Research the ecological interactions of grasslands with other ecosystems; share data widely and include recommendations for coordinated action.
Assess and publish costs of PA designation, management, and evaluation.
Conduct comparative analysis on different types of governance models for PAs to determine impacts on climate, biodiversity, and human well-being.
Examine the relationship between geography and governance structures of private PAs, looking for spatial patterns and roles of various stakeholders such NGOs, businesses, and private landowners.
Study behavioral change mechanisms that can increase effectiveness and enforcement of PAs.
Improve monitoring methods using field measurements, models, satellite imagery, and GIS tools.
Create or improve on existing software tools that allow for dynamic planning and management of PAs by monitoring impacts on local communities, the climate, and biodiversity.
Create local research sites to support PAs and provide technical assistance.
Create tools for local communities to monitor grasslands, such as mobile apps, e-learning platforms, and mapping tools.
Develop supply chain tracking software for investors and businesses seeking to create sustainable portfolios and products.

Further information:

Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)

Communities, Households, and Individuals

Avoid developing intact grasslands and adhere to sustainable use guidelines of PAs.
Participate or volunteer in local grassland protection efforts; use or advocate for co-management, community-governed, land-trust, and/or privately protected models to expand PAs, increase connectivity, and allow for continued community engagement.
Help manage and monitor protected grasslands using real-time monitoring and satellite data.
Establish coordinating bodies for farmers, herders, developers, landowners, policymakers, and other stakeholders to holistically manage PAs.
Advocate for enhanced enforcement of existing PAs and IPLs, expansion of new PAs and IPLs, and public investments.
Help conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected grasslands or incentivize destruction.
Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over PAs or IPLs.
Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon and biodiversity markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
Support Indigenous communities' capacity for management, legal protection and public relations.
Use or advocate for financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and PES to protect grasslands from development.
Help classify and map grasslands and create local, national, and international standards for classification.
Ensure PAs don’t displace, violate rights, or reduce access to vital resources for local and Indigenous communities.
Work with insurance companies to reduce insurance premiums for properties that protect or maintain grasslands.
Plant native species to help improve the local ecological balance and stabilize the soil, especially on property adjacent to PAs.
Use nontoxic cleaning and gardening supplies, purchase unbleached paper products, and recycle to help keep pollution and debris out of grasslands.
Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.
Create programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.

Further information:

Saving our grasslands: Why they matter, why we are losing them, and how we can save them. Friedman (2023)
Valuing grasslands: Critical ecosystems for nature, climate and people. Grasslands, Rangelands, Savannahs and Shrublands Alliance (2024)

Sources

Weighing the benefits of expanding protected areas versus managing existing ones. Adams et al. (2019)
Collective property rights reduce deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Baragwanath and Bayi (2020)
Combating global grassland degradation. Bardgett et al. (2021)
Prevent perverse outcomes from global protected area policy. Barnes et al. (2018)
Financial costs and shortfalls of managing and expanding protected-area systems in developing countries. Bruner et al. (2004)
Global plight of native temperate grasslands: Going, going, gone? Carbutt et al. (2017)
Conservation imperatives: securing the last unprotected terrestrial sites harboring irreplaceable biodiversity. Dinerstein et al. (2024)
Compensation for ecosystem services: An evaluation of efforts to achieve conservation and development in Ecuadorian páramo grasslands. Farley et al. (2011)
Protecting irrecoverable carbon in Earth’s ecosystems. Goldstein et al. (2020)
Innovative grassland management systems for environmental and livelihood benefits. Kemp et al. (2013)
Benefits, potential and risks of China’s grassland ecosystem conservation and restoration. Li et al. (2023)
Privately protected areas increase global protected area coverage and connectivity. Palfrey et al. (2022)
Protected area targets post-2020. Visconti et al. (2019)
Effectiveness of grassland protection and pastoral area development under the grassland ecological conservation subsidy and reward policy. Zhang et al. (2022)

Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing emissions and maintaining carbon removal: High

There is high scientific consensus that grassland protection reduces emissions by reducing conversion of grasslands to croplands. Grasslands have been extensively converted globally because of their utility for agricultural use, and many extant grasslands are at high risk of conversion (Carbutt et al., 2017; Gang et al., 2014). Li et al. (2024) found that PAs prevent conversion of approximately 0.35% of global grasslands per year. Although grasslands remain understudied relative to some other ecosystems, there is robust evidence that PAs and IPLs reduce forest conversion, with estimates in different regions ranging from 17–75% reductions in forest loss relative to unprotected areas (Baragwanth & Bayi, 2020; Graham et al., 2021; McNichol et al., 2023; Sze et al., 2022; Wolf et al., 2022). Additional research specific to grasslands on the effectiveness of PAs and IPLs at preventing land use change would be valuable.

Conversion of grasslands to croplands produces emissions through the loss of soil carbon and biomass (IPCC, 2019). A recent meta-analysis based on 5,980 soil carbon measurements found that grassland conversion to croplands reduces soil carbon stocks by a global average of 23%, or almost 30 t CO₂ /ha (Huang et al., 2024), before accounting for nitrous oxide emissions (IPCC, 2019), loss of biomass carbon stocks (Spawn et al., 2020), and loss of sequestration potential (Chang et al., 2021).

Regional studies also find that grassland protection provides emissions savings. For instance, a study of grasslands in Argentina and the United States found that conversion to croplands reduced total carbon stocks, including soil and biomass, by 117 t CO₂‑eq /ha (Kim et al., 2016). Ahlering et al. (2016) conclude that protecting just 210,000 ha of unprotected grasslands in the U.S. Northern Great Plains would avoid 11.7 Mt CO₂‑eq over 20 years, with emissions savings of 51.6 t CO₂‑eq /ha protected, or 35.6 t CO₂‑eq /ha after accounting for leakage and uncertainty.

The quantitative results presented in this assessment synthesize findings from 13 global datasets supplemented by three meta-analyses with global scopes. We recognize that geographic bias in the information underlying global data products creates bias and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

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Appendix

This analysis quantifies the emissions avoidable through legal protection of grasslands via establishment of PAs or land tenure for Indigenous peoples. We leveraged a global grassland distribution map alongside other ecosystem distribution maps, shapefiles of PAs and IPLs, available data on rates of avoided ecosystem loss attributable to PA establishment, maps of grassland carbon stocks in above- and below-ground biomass, and biome-level estimates of soil carbon loss for grasslands converted to croplands. This appendix describes the source data products and how they were integrated.

Grassland Extent

We relied on the 30-m resolution global map of grassland extent developed by Parente et al. (2024), which classifies both “natural and semi-natural grasslands” and “managed grasslands.” This solution considers only the “natural and semi-natural grasslands” class. We first resampled the data to 1 km resolution by calculating the percent of the pixel occupied by grasslands. To avoid double counting land considered in other ecosystem protection solutions (Protect Forests, Protect Peatlands, and Protect Coastal Wetlands), we then adjusted the grassland map so that no pixel contained a value greater than 100% after summing all ecosystem types. These other ecosystems can overlap with grasslands either because they are non-exclusive (e.g., peatland soils can have grassland vegetation), or because of variable definitions (e.g., the grassland map allows up to 50% tree cover, which could be classified as a forest by other land cover maps). After adjusting for other ecosystems, we used the Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World data (Olson et al., 2001) to exclude areas of natural forest, because these areas are eligible for other solutions.

The resultant raster of proportionate grassland coverage was converted to absolute areas, and used to calculate the total grassland area for each of four latitude bands (tropical: –23.4° to 23.4°; subtropical: –35° to –23.4° and 23.4° to 35°; temperate: –50° to –35° and 35° to 50°; boreal: <–50° and >50°). The analysis was conducted by latitude bands in order to retain some spatial variability in emissions factors and degradation rates.

Protected Grassland Areas

We identified protected grassland areas using the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2024), which contains boundaries for each PA and additional information, including their establishment year and International Union for Conservation of Nature management category (Ia–VI, not applicable, not reported, and not assigned). The PA boundary data were converted to a raster and used to calculate the grassland area within PA boundaries for each latitude band and each PA category. To evaluate trends in adoption over time, we also aggregated protected areas by establishment year as reported in the WDPA.

We used the maps of IPLs from Garnett et al. (2018) to identify IPLs that were not inside of established PAs. The total grassland area within IPLs was calculated according to the same process as for PAs.

Avoided Grassland Conversion

Broadly, we estimated annual, per-hectare emissions savings from grassland protection as the difference between net carbon exchange in a protected grassland and an unprotected grassland. This calculation followed Equation A1, in which the annual grassland loss avoided due to protection (%/yr) is multiplied by the 30-yr cumulative sum of emissions per hectare of grassland converted to cropland (CO₂‑eq /ha over 30 yr).

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Equation A1.

\[ Effectiveness = Grassland\text{ }loss_{avoided} \times \sum_{t=1}^{30}{Emissions} \]

The avoided grassland loss attributable to PAs was calculated from the source data for Figure 7 of Li et al. (2024), which provides the difference in habitat loss between protected areas and unprotected control areas between 2003–2019 by ecoregion. These data were filtered to only include grasslands, aggregated to latitude bands, and used to calculate annual linear rates of avoided habitat loss. Tropical and subtropical regions were not clearly distinguished, so the same rate was used for both.

Grassland Conversion Emissions

The emissions associated with grassland conversion to cropland include loss of above- and below-ground biomass carbon stocks, loss of soil carbon stocks, and loss of carbon sequestration potential. We used data on above- and below-ground biomass carbon stocks from Spawn et al. (2020) to calculate the average carbon stocks by latitude band for grassland pixels and cropland pixels. We used the 2010 ESA CCI land cover dataset for this calculation because it was the base map used to generate the biomass carbon stock dataset. The per-hectare difference between biomass carbon stocks in grasslands and croplands represents the emissions from biomass carbon stocks following grassland conversion.

We aggregated soil carbon stocks from SoilGrids 2.0 (0–30 cm depth) to latitude bands for grassland pixels from the 2015 ESA CCI land cover dataset, which was the base map used for the SoilGrids dataset (Poggio et al., 2021). To avoid capturing peatlands, which have higher C stocks, we excluded pixels with soil carbon contents >15% by mass (a slightly conservative cutoff for organic soils) prior to aggregation. We took the percent loss of soil carbon following grassland-to-cropland conversion from Table S8 of the meta-analysis by Huang et al. (2024), who also conducted their analysis by latitude band. Soil carbon losses are also associated with nitrous oxide emissions, which were calculated per the IPCC Tier 1 equations as follows using the default C:N ratio of 15:1.

We calculated the loss of carbon sequestration potential based on estimates of grassland annual net CO₂ flux, extracted from Table S2 from Chang et al. (2021). These data include field- and model-based measurements of grassland net CO₂ flux and were used to calculate median values by latitude band.

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Updated Date

Mon, 10/13/2025 - 12:00

Read more about Protect Grasslands & Savannas

Reduce Food Loss & Waste

Submitted by Drawdown Admin on Sat, 02/15/2025 - 15:02

Sector

Food, Agriculture, Land & Ocean (FALO)

Mode

Cut Emissions

Cluster

Curb Growing Demands

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Summary

More than one-third of all food produced for human consumption is lost or wasted before it can be eaten. This means that the GHGs emitted during the production and distribution of that particular food – including emissions from agriculture-related deforestation and soil management, methane emissions from livestock and rice production, and nitrous oxide emissions from fertilizer management – are also wasted. This solution reduces emissions by lowering the amount of food and its associated emissions that are lost or wasted across the supply chain, from production through consumption.

Overview

The global food system, including land use, production, storage, and distribution, generates more than 25% of global GHG emissions (Poore and Nemecek, 2018). More than one-third of this food is lost or wasted before it can be eaten, with estimated associated emissions being recorded at 4.9 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (our own calculation). FLW emissions arise from supply chain embodied emissions (i.e., the emissions generated from producing food and delivering to consumers). Reducing food loss and waste avoids the embodied emissions while simultaneously increasing food supply and reducing pressure to expand agricultural land use and intensity.

FLW occurs at each stage of the food supply chain (Figure 1). Food loss refers to the stages of production, handling, storage, and processing within the supply chain. Food waste occurs at the distribution, retail, and consumer stages of the supply chain.

Food loss can be reduced through improved post-harvest management practices, such as increasing the number and storage capacity of warehouses, optimizing processes and equipment, and improving packaging to increase shelf life. Retailers can reduce food waste by improving inventory management, forecasting demand, donating unsold food to food banks, and standardizing date labeling. Consumers can reduce food waste by educating themselves, making informed purchasing decisions, and effectively planning meals. The type of interventions to reduce FLW will depend on the type(s) of food product, the supply chain stage(s), and the location(s).

When FLW cannot be prevented, organic waste can be managed in ways that limit its GHG emissions. Waste management is not included in this solution but is addressed in other Drawdown Explorer solutions (see Deploy Methane Digesters, Improve Landfill Management, and Increase Centralized Composting).

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Credits

Lead Fellows

Erika Luna
Aishwarya Venkat, Ph.D.

Contributors

Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.
Emily Cassidy, Ph.D.
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Yusuf Jameel, Ph.D.
Daniel Jasper
Alex Sweeney
Eric Toensmeier
Paul C. West, Ph.D.

Internal Reviewers

Aiyana Bodi
Hannah Henkin
Megan Matthews, Ph.D.
Heather McDiarmid, Ph.D.
Ted Otte
Christina Swanson, Ph.D.
Paul C. West, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

Our analysis estimates that reducing FLW reduces emissions 2.82 t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis) for every metric ton of food saved (Table 1). This estimate is based on selected country and global assessments from nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), public agencies, and development banks (ReFED, 2024; World Bank, 2020; WRAP, 2024). All studies included in this estimate reported a reduction in both volumes of FLW and GHG emissions. However, it is important to recognize that the range of embodied emissions varies widely across foods (Poore & Nemecek, 2018). For example, reducing meat waste can be more effective than reducing fruit waste because the embodied emissions are much higher.

Effectiveness is only reported on a 100-yr time frame here because our data sources did not include enough information to separate out the contribution of different GHGs and calculate the effectiveness on a 20-yr time frame.

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Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /t reduced FLW, 100-yr basis

25th percentile	2.75
mean	3.11
median (50th percentile)	2.82
75th percentile	3.30

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Cost

The net cost of baseline FLW is US$932.56/t waste, based on values from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, 2014) and Hegensholt et al. (2018). The median net cost of implementing strategies and practices that reduce FLW is US$385.5/t waste reduced, based on values from ReFED (2024) and Hanson and Mitchell (2017). These costs include, but are not limited to, improvements to inventory tracking, storage, and diversion to food banks. Therefore, the net cost of the solution compared to baseline is a total savings of US$547.0/t waste reduced.

Therefore, reducing emissions for FLW is cost-effective, saving US$194.0/t avoided CO₂‑eq on a 100-yr basis (Table 2).

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Table 2. Net cost per unit climate impact.

Unit: US$/t CO₂‑eq , 2023

Median (100-yr basis)

-194.0

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Learning Curve

Learning curve data were not yet available for this solution.

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Speed of Action

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Reduce Food Loss and Waste is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It has the potential to deliver a more rapid impact than nominal and delayed solutions. Because emergency brake solutions can deliver their climate benefits quickly, they can help accelerate our efforts to address dangerous levels of climate change. For this reason, they are a high priority.

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Caveats

Reducing FLW through consumer behavior, supply chain efficiencies, or other means can lead to lower food prices, creating a rebound effect that leads to increased consumption and GHG emissions (Hegwood et al., 2023). This rebound effect could offset around 53–71% of the mitigation benefits (Hegwood et al., 2023). Population and economic growth also increase FLW. The question remains however, who should bear the cost of implementing FLW solutions. A combination of value chain investments by governments and waste taxes for consumers may be required for optimal FLW reduction (Gatto, 2023; Hegwood, 2023; The World Bank, 2020).

Strategies for managing post-consumer waste through composting and landfills are captured in other Project Drawdown solutions (see Improve Landfill Management, Increase Centralized Composting, and Deploy Methane Digesters).

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Current Adoption

Due to a lack of data we were not able to quantify current adoption for this solution.

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Adoption Trend

Data on adoption trends were not available.

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Adoption Ceiling

We assumed an adoption ceiling of 1.75 Gt of FLW reduction in 2023, which reflects a 100% reduction in FLW (Table 3). While reducing FLW by 100% is unrealistic because some losses and waste are inevitable (e.g., trimmings, fruit pits and peels) and some surplus food is needed to ensure a stable food supply (HLPE, 2014), we kept that simple assumption because there wasn’t sufficient information on the amount of inevitable waste, and it is consistent with other research used in this assessment.

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Table 3. Adoption ceiling.

Unit: t reduced FLW/yr

Median

1,750,000,000

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Achievable Adoption

Studies consider that halving the reduction in FLW by 2050 is extremely ambitious and would require “breakthrough technologies,” whereas a 25% reduction is classified as highly ambitious, and a 10% reduction is more realistic based on coordinated efforts (Searchinger, 2019; Springmann et al., 2018). With our estimate of 1.75 Gt of FLW per year, a 25% reduction equals 0.48 Gt, while a 50% reduction would represent 0.95 Gt of reduced FLW.

It is important to acknowledge that, 10 years after the 50% reduction target was set in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, Goal 12.3), the world has not made sufficient progress. The challenge has therefore become larger as the amounts of FLW keep increasing at a rate of 2.2%/yr (Gatto & Chepeliev, 2023; Hegnsholt, et al. 2018; Porter et al., 2016).

As a result of these outcomes, we have selected a 25% reduction in FLW as our Achievable – Low and 50% as our Achievable – High. Reductions in FLW are 437.5, 875.0, and 1,750 Mt FLW/year for Achievable – Low, Achievable – High, and Adoption Ceiling, respectively (Table 4).

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Table 4. Adoption levels.

Unit: t reduced FLW/yr

Current adoption (baseline)	Not determined
Achievable – Low (25% of total FLW)	437,500,000
Achievable – High (50% of total FLW)	875,000,000
Adoption ceiling (100% of total FLW)	1,750,000,000

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An Achievable – Low (25% FLW reduction) could represent 1.23 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100-yr basis) of reduced emissions, whereas an Achievable – High (50% FLW reduction) could represent up to 2.47 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr. The adoption potential (100% FLW reduction) would result in 4.94 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Table 5). We only report emissions outcomes on a 100-yr basis here because most data sources did not separate the percentage of type of food wasted or disaggregate their associated emissions factors by GHG type. Estimated impacts would be higher on a 20-yr basis due to the higher GWP of methane associated with meat and rice production.

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Table 5. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current adoption (1.5% of total FLW)	Not determined
Achievable – Low (25% of total FLW)	1.23
Achievable – High (50% of total FLW)	2.47
Adoption ceiling (100% of total FLW)	4.94

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We also compiled studies that have modeled the climate impacts of different FLW reduction scenarios, from 10% to 75%. For an achievable 25% reduction, Scheringer (2019) estimated a climate impact of 1.6 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr. Studies that modeled the climate impact of a 50% reduction by 2050 estimated between 0.5 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (excluding emissions from agricultural production and land use change; Roe at al., 2021) to 3.1–4.5 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (including emissions from agricultural production and land use change; Roe at al., 2021; Searchinger et al., 2019).

Multiple studies stated that climate impacts from FLW reduction would be greater when combined with the implementation of dietary changes (see the Improve Diets solution; Almaraz et al., 2023; Babiker et al.; 2022; Roe et al., 2021; Springmann et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2023).

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Additional Benefits

Extreme Weather Events

Households and communities can strengthen adaptation to climate change by improving food storage, which helps reduce food loss (Ziervogel & Ericksen, 2010). Better food storage infrastructure improves food security from extreme weather events such as drought or floods which make it more difficult to grow food and can disrupt food distribution (Mbow et al., 2019).

Income and Work

FLW accounts for a loss of about US$1 trillion annually (World Bank, 2020). In the United States, a four-person household spends about US$2,913 on food that is wasted (Kenny, 2025). These household-level savings are particularly important for low-income families because they commonly spend a higher proportion of their income on food (Davidenko & Sweitzer, 2024). Reducing FLW can improve economic efficiency (Jaglo et al., 2021). In fact, a report by Champions 12.3 found efforts to reduce food waste produced positive returns on investments in cities, businesses, and households in the United Kingdom (Hanson & Mitchell, 2017). FLW in low- and middle-income countries mostly occurs during the pre-consumer stages, such as storage, processing, and transport (Kaza et al., 2018). Preventive measures to reduce these losses have been linked to improved incomes and profits (Rolker et al., 2022).

Food Security

Reducing FLW increases the amount of available food, thereby improving food security without requiring increased production (Neff et al., 2015). The World Resources Institute estimated that halving the rate of FLW could reduce the projected global need for food approximately 20% by 2050 (Searchinger et al., 2019). In the United States, about 30–40% of food is wasted (U.S. Food and Drug Administration [U.S. FDA], 2019) with this uneaten food accounting for enough calories to feed more than 150 million people annually (Jaglo et al., 2021). These studies demonstrate that reducing FLW can simultaneously decrease the demand for food production while improving food security.

Health

Policies that reduce food waste at the consumer level, such as those that improve food packaging and require clearer information on shelf life and date labels, can reduce the number of foodborne illnesses (Neff et al., 2015; U.S. FDA, 2019). Additionally, efforts to improve food storage and food handling can further reduce illnesses and improve working conditions for food-supply-chain workers (Neff et al., 2015). Reducing FLW can lower air pollution from food production, processing, and transportation and from disposal of wasted food (Nutrition Connect, 2023). Gatto and Chepeliev (2024) found that reducing FLW can improve air quality (primarily through reductions in carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter), which lowers premature mortality from respiratory infections. These benefits were primarily observed in China, India, and Indonesia, where high FLW-embedded air pollution is prevalent across all stages of the food supply chain (Gatto & Chepeliev, 2024).

Land Resources

For a description of the land resources benefits, please refer to the “water resources” subsection below.

Water Resources

Reducing FLW can conserve resources and improve biodiversity (Cattaneo, Federighi, & Vaz, 2021). A reduction in FLW reflects improvements in resource efficiency of freshwater, synthetic fertilizers, and cropland used for agriculture (Kummu et al., 2012). Reducing the strain on freshwater resources is particularly relevant in water-scarce areas such as North Africa and West-Central Asia (Kummu et al., 2012). In the United States, halving the amount of FLW could reduce approximately 290,000 metric tons of nitrogen from fertilizers, thereby reducing runoff, improving water quality, and decreasing algal blooms (Jaglo et al., 2021).

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Risks

Interventions to address FLW risk ignoring economic factors such as price transmission mechanisms and cascading effects, both upstream and downstream in the supply chain. The results of a FLW reduction policy or program depend greatly on the commodity, initial FLW rates, and market integration (Cattaneo, 2021; de Gorter, 2021).

On the consumer side, there is a risk of a rebound effect: Avoiding FLW can lower food prices, leading to increased consumption and net increase in GHG emissions (Hegwood et al., 2023). Available evidence is highly contextual and often difficult to scale, so relevant dynamics must be studied with care (Goossens, 2019).

The production site is a critical loss point, and farm incomes, scale of operations, and expected returns to investment affect loss reduction interventions (Anriquez, 2021; Fabi, 2021; Sheahan and Barrett, 2017).

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Interactions with Other Solutions

Competing

Food waste is used as raw material for methane digesters and composting. Reducing FLW may reduce the impact of those solutions as a result of decreased feedstock availability.

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Dashboard

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

t reduced FLW

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit

02.752.82

Adoption

units/yr

Current Not Determined 04.375×10⁸8.75×10⁸

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current Not Determined 1.232.47

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

-194

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂ , CH₄ , N₂O

Trade-offs

Some FLW reduction strategies have trade-offs for emission reductions (Cattaneo, 2021; de Gorter et al., 2021). For example, improved cold storage and packaging are important interventions for reducing food loss, yet they require additional electricity and refrigerants, which can increase GHG emissions (Babiker et al., 2022; FAO, 2019).

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Action Word

Reduce

Solution Title

Food Loss & Waste

Classification

Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Ensure public procurement uses strategies to reduce FLW at all stages of the supply chain; consider using the Food Loss and Waste Protocol.
Use financial incentives and regulations to promote efficient growing practices, harvesting methods, and storage technologies.
Utilize financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support infrastructure, technology, and enforcement.
Implement bans on food waste in landfills.
Standardize food date labels.
Mandate FLW reporting and reduction targets for major food businesses.
Prioritize policies that divert FLW toward human consumption first, then prioritize animal feed or compost.
Fund research to improve monitoring technologies, food storage, and resilient crop varieties.
Invest or expand extension services to work with major food businesses to reduce FLW.
Invest in and improve supportive infrastructure including electricity, public storage facilities, and roads to facilitate compost supply chains.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that facilitate stakeholder discussions.

Further information:

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
The state of food and agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO (2019)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. Moraes et al. (2021)
Government relations and public policy job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Legal job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Food loss and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. Sheahan et al. (2017)
An overview of food waste management in developing countries: Current status and future perspective. Thi et al. (2015)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Practitioners

Ensure operations reduce FLW at all stages of the supply chain; consider using the Food Loss and Waste Protocol.
Set ambitious targets to reduce FLW, reevaluate them regularly, and use thorough measurements that capture FLW, associated GHG emissions, and financial data.
Take advantage of extension services and financial incentives such as tax rebates and subsidies that promote FLW reduction strategies.
Work with policymakers, peers, and industry leaders to standardize date labeling.
Promote cosmetically imperfect food through marketing, discounts, or offtake agreements.
Utilize behavior change mechanisms such as signage saying “eat what you take,” offer smaller portion sizes, use smaller plates for servings, and visibly post information on the impact of FLW and best practices for prevention.
Engage with frontline workers to identify and remedy FLW.
Institute warehouse receipt systems and tracking techniques.
Use tested storage devices and facilities such as hermetic bags and metal silos.
Utilize Integrated pest management (IPM) during both pre- and post-harvest stages.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that facilitate stakeholder discussions.

Further information:

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
Improving data on food losses and waste: From theory to practice. Fabi et al. (2021)
The state of food and agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO (2019)
Driving emissions down and profit up by reducing food waste. Food Waste Coalition of Action (2024)
The business case for reducing food loss and waste. Hanson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. Moraes et al. (2021)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore et al. (2018)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Business Leaders

Ensure procurement uses strategies to reduce FLW at all stages of the supply chain; consider using the Food Loss and Waste Protocol.
Set ambitious targets to reduce FLW, reevaluate them regularly, and use thorough measurements that capture FLW, associated GHG emissions, and financial data.
Utilize or work with companies that utilize efficient growing practices, harvesting methods, and storage technologies that reduce FLW.
Enter into offtake agreements for diverted food initiatives.
Promote cosmetically imperfect food through marketing, discounts, or offtake agreements.
Work with policymakers and industry peers to standardize date labeling and advocate for bans on food waste in landfills.
Appoint a senior executive responsible for FLW goals and ensure they have the resources and authority for effective implementation.
Utilize behavior change mechanisms such as signage saying, “eat what you take,” offer smaller portion sizes, use smaller plates for servings, and visibly post information on the impact of FLW and best practices for prevention.
Engage with frontline workers to identify and remedy FLW.
Institute warehouse receipt systems and tracking techniques.
Fund research or startups that aim to improve monitoring technologies, food storage, packaging materials, stocking practices, and resilient crop varieties.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that facilitate stakeholder discussions.

Further information:

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
Improving data on food losses and waste: From theory to practice. Fabi et al. (2021)
The state of food and agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO (2019)
Driving emissions down and profit up by reducing food waste. Food Waste Coalition of Action (2024)
The business case for reducing food loss and waste. Hanson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
Climate solutions at work. Project Drawdown (2021)
Drawdown-aligned business framework. Project Drawdown (2021)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Nonprofit Leaders

Ensure procurement uses strategies to reduce FLW at all stages of the supply chain; consider using the Food Loss and Waste Protocol.
Advocate for bans on food waste in landfills.
Work with policymakers and industry leaders to standardize date labeling.
Help food and agricultural companies use efficient growing practices, harvesting methods, and storage technologies that reduce FLW.
Advocate for financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support infrastructure, technology, and enforcement.
Use cosmetically imperfect and diverted food for food banks.
Help companies track and report FLW and monitor goals, and offer input for improvement.
Help transfer capacity, knowledge, and infrastructure to support FLW management in low- and middle-income communities.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that facilitate stakeholder discussions.

Further information:

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
Improving data on food losses and waste: From theory to practice. Fabi et al. (2021)
The state of food and agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO (2019)
Driving emissions down and profit up by reducing food waste. Food Waste Coalition of Action (2024)
The business case for reducing food loss and waste. Hanson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. Moraes et al. (2021)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore et al. (2018)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
Review: Food Loss and Waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sheahan et al. (2017)
An overview of food waste management in developing countries: Current status and future perspective. Thi et al. (2015)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Investors

Ensure portfolio companies and company procurement use strategies to reduce FLW at all stages of the supply chain; consider using the Food Loss and Waste Protocol.
Require portfolio companies to measure and report on FLW GHG emissions.
Fund startups which aim to improve monitoring technologies, food storage, packaging materials, stocking practices, and resilient crop varieties.
Offer financial services, notably rural financial market development, including low-interest loans, micro-financing, and grants to support FLW prevention initiatives.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships, such as the Food Waste Funder Circle, that facilitate stakeholder discussions.

Further information:

Driving emissions down and profit up by reducing food waste. Food Waste Coalition of Action (2024)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Improving data on food losses and waste: From theory to practice. Fabi et al. (2021)
Reducing Food Loss and Waste: Setting a Global Action Agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore et al. (2018)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
The business case for reducing food loss and waste. Hanson et al. (2017)
The state of food and agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO (2019)
The food waste atlas.

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Ensure procurement uses strategies to reduce FLW at all stages of the supply chain; consider using the Food Loss and Waste Protocol.
Advocate for bans on food waste in landfills.
Work with policymakers and industry leaders to standardize date labeling.
Help food and agricultural companies use efficient growing practices, harvesting methods, and storage technologies that reduce FLW.
Advocate for financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support infrastructure, technology, and enforcement.
Use cosmetically imperfect and diverted food for food banks.
Help companies tracking and report FLW and monitor goals, and offer input for improvement.
Help transfer capacity, knowledge, and infrastructure to support FLW management in low- and middle-income communities.
Fund startups that aim to improve monitoring technologies, food storage, packaging materials, stocking practices, and resilient crop varieties.
Offer financial services, especially for rural financial market development, including low-interest loans, micro-financing, and grants to support FLW initiatives.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships, such as the Food Waste Funder Circle, that facilitate stakeholder discussions.

Further information:

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
Improving data on food losses and waste: From theory to practice. Fabi et al. (2021)
The state of food and agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO (2019)
Driving emissions down and profit up by reducing food waste. Food Waste Coalition of Action (2024)
The business case for reducing food loss and waste. Hanson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. Moraes et al. (2021)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore et al. (2018)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
Review: Food Loss and Waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sheahan et al. (2017)
An overview of food waste management in developing countries: Current status and future perspective. Thi et al. (2015)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Thought Leaders

Adopt behaviors to reduce FLW, including portion control, “eating what you take,” and reducing meat consumption.
Advocate for bans on food waste in landfills.
Help food and agricultural companies use efficient growing practices, harvesting methods, and storage technologies that reduce FLW.
Work with policymakers and industry leaders to standardize date labeling.
Advocate for financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support infrastructure, technology, and enforcement.
Help companies or independent track and report FLW data and emissions.
Help transfer capacity, knowledge, and infrastructure to support FLW management in low- and middle-income communities.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that facilitate stakeholder discussions.

Further information:

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
Improving data on food losses and waste: From theory to practice. Fabi et al. (2021)
The state of food and agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO (2019)
Driving emissions down and profit up by reducing food waste. Food Waste Coalition of Action (2024)
The business case for reducing food loss and waste. Hanson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. Moraes et al. (2021)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore et al. (2018)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Technologists and Researchers

Research and develop more efficient growing and harvesting practices.
Develop new crop varieties to increase land productivity, shelf life, durability during transportation, and resistance to contamination.
Improve the efficiency of cold chains for transportation and storage.
Design software that can optimize the harvesting, storage, transportation, stocking, and shelf life of produce.
Improve data collection on FLW, associated GHG emissions, and financial data across the supply chain.
Develop new non-plastic, biodegradable, low-carbon packaging materials.
Improve storage devices and facilities such as hermetic bags and metal silos.
Research technologies, practices, or nonharmful substances to prolong the lifespan of food.

Further information:

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
Improving data on food losses and waste: From theory to practice. Fabi et al. (2021)
Driving emissions down and profit up by reducing food waste. Food Waste Coalition of Action (2024)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. Moraes et al. (2021)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore et al. (2018)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
Review: Food Loss and Waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sheahan et al. (2017)
An overview of food waste management in developing countries: Current status and future perspective. Thi et al. (2015)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Communities, Households, and Individuals

Adopt behaviors to reduce FLW, including portion control, “eating what you take,” and reducing meat consumption.
Donate food that won’t be used or, if that’s not possible, use the food for animals or compost.
Advocate for bans on food waste in landfills.
Advocate for financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support infrastructure, technology, and enforcement.
Demand transparency around FLW from public and private organizations.
Educate yourself and those around you about the impacts and solutions.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that facilitate stakeholder discussions.

Further information:

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
The state of food and agriculture 2019: Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. FAO (2019)
The business case for reducing food loss and waste. Hanson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore et al. (2018)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Sources

The food waste atlas.
Reducing food loss and waste: Five challenges for policy and research. Cattaneo et al. (2021)
Improving data on food losses and waste: From theory to practice. Fabi et al. (2021)
The State of Food and Agriculture 2019: Moving Forward on Food Loss and Waste Reduction. FAO (2019)
Driving emissions down and profit up by reducing food waste. Food Waste Coalition of Action (2024)
The business case for reducing food loss and waste. Hanson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Ten interventions to scale impact. Hanson et al. (2019)
A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. Moraes et al. (2021)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore et al. (2018)
Food waste is a solvable problem – Here’s how to do it. ReFED (n.d.)
Review: Consumption-stage food waste reduction interventions – what works and how to design better interventions. Reynolds (2019)
Review: Food loss and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. Sheahan et al. (2017)
An overview of food waste management in developing countries: Current status and future perspective. Thi et al. (2015)
Food waste: The role of date labels, package size, and product category. Wilson et al. (2017)
Reducing food loss and waste: Setting a global action agenda. World Resources Institute (2019)

Evidence Base

A large volume of scientific research exists regarding reducing emissions of FLW effectively. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) estimates the mitigation potential of FLW reduction (through multiple reduction strategies) to be 2.1 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (with a range of 0.1–5.8 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr ) (Nabuurs et al., 2022). This accounts for savings along the whole value chain.

Following the 2011 FAO report – which estimated that around one-third (1.3 Gt) of food is lost and wasted worldwide per year – global coordination has prioritized the measurement of the FLW problem. This statistic has served as a baseline for multiple FLW reduction strategies. However, more recent studies suggest that the percentage of FLW may be closer to 40% (WWF, 2021). The median of the studies included in our analysis is 1.75 Gt/yr of FLW (FAO, 2024; Gatto & Chepeliev, 2024; Guo et al., 2020; Porter et al., 2016; UNEP, 2024; WWF, 2021; Zhu et al., 2023), with an annual increasing trend of 2.2%.

Only one study included in our analysis calculated food embodied emissions from all stages of the supply chain, while the rest focused on the primary production stages. Zhu et al. (2023) estimated 6.5 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr arising from the supply chain side, representing 35% of total food system emissions.

When referring to food types, meat and animal products were estimated to emit 3.5 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr compared to 0.12 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr from fruits and vegetables (Zhu et al., 2023). Although meat is emissions-intensive, fruits and vegetables are the most wasted types of food by volume, making up 37% of total FLW by mass (Chen et al., 2020). The consumer stage is associated with the highest share of global emissions at 36% of total supply-embodied emissions from FLW, compared to 10.9% and 11.5% at the retail and wholesale levels, respectively (Zhu et al., 2023).

While efforts to measure the FLW problem are invaluable, critical gaps exist regarding evidence of the effectiveness of different reduction strategies across supply chain stages ( Cattaneo, 2021; Goossens, 2019; Karl et al., 2025). To facilitate impact assessments and cost-effectiveness, standardized metrics are required to report actual quantities of FLW reduced as well as resulting GHG emissions savings (Food Loss and Waste Protocol, 2024).

The results presented in this document summarize findings across 22 studies. These studies are made up of eight academic reviews and original studies, eight reports from NGOs, and six reports from public and multilateral organizations. This reflects current evidence from five countries, primarily the United States and the United Kingdom. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research for meta-analyses and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions and stages of the supply chain.

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Updated Date

Tue, 09/02/2025 - 12:00

Read more about Reduce Food Loss & Waste

Improve Diets

Submitted by Drawdown Admin on Sat, 02/15/2025 - 15:02

Sector

Food, Agriculture, Land & Ocean (FALO)

Mode

Cut Emissions

Cluster

Curb Growing Demands

Image

Coming Soon

Off

Summary

Agriculture produces about 12 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, or 21% of total human-caused GHG emissions (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2023). Animal agriculture contributes more than half of these emissions (Halpern et al., 2022; Poore and Nemecek, 2018).

Ruminant animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats produce methane – a GHG with 80 times the warming potential of CO₂ in the near term – in their digestive system (Jackson et al., 2024). Since agriculture is the leading driver of tropical deforestation, particularly for cattle and animal feed production, reducing ruminant meat consumption can avoid additional forest loss and associated GHG emissions.

We define improved diets as a reduction in ruminant meat consumption and a replacement with other protein-rich foods. Such a diet shift can be adopted incrementally through small behavioral changes that together lead to globally significant reductions in GHG emissions.

Overview

Reducing ruminant meat consumption, especially in high-consuming regions, has a globally significant potential for climate change mitigation. Ruminants contribute 30% of food-related emissions but generate only 5% of global dietary calories (Li et al., 2024).

Ruminant animals have digestive systems with multiple chambers that allow them to ferment grass and leaves. However, this digestion generates methane emissions through a process called enteric fermentation. In addition, clearing forests and grasslands for pastures and cropland to feed livestock emits CO₂, and livestock manure emits methane and nitrous oxide.

In 2019, an international team of scientists called the EAT-Lancet Commission developed benchmarks for a healthy, sustainable diet based on peer-reviewed information on human health and environmental sustainability (Willett et al., 2019). The commission estimated that red meat (beef, lamb, and pork) should be limited to 14 grams (30 calories) per day per person, or 5.1 kg/person/yr. Although the EAT-Lancet diet includes pork, our analysis looked specifically at limiting ruminant meat to 5.1 kg/person/yr because it has much higher GHG emissions than pork (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production of protein-rich foods. Beef has the highest emissions per kilogram. These emissions data are from Poore & Nemecek (2018), with the exception of "Ruminant meat," which was calculated based on the amount of beef and lamb consumed in 2022.

Poore, J. & T. Nemecek (2018) Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Science 360, 987–992. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaq0216

In this solution, we explored reducing ruminant meat consumption in middle- and high-income countries in which consumption exceeds 5.1 kg/person/yr. Furthermore, our analysis assumed ruminant meat is replaced with approximately the same amount of protein-rich plant- or animal-based foods, which are estimated to be about 20% protein by weight (Poore and Nemecek, 2018).

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Credits

Lead Fellows

Emily Cassidy

Contributors

Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Daniel Jasper
Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

Paul C. West, Ph.D.
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Megan Matthews, Ph.D
Ted Otte

Effectiveness

We estimated that replacing 1 kg of ruminant meat with the same weight of other meat or protein-rich food reduces emissions by about 0.065 t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis).

We derived GHG emissions from 1 kg of ruminant meat, 0.075 t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis), from Poore and Nemecek’s (2018) database and modeling from Kim et al. (2020). Our calculation was based on the GHG footprint of a kg of meat from beef cattle, dairy cattle, and sheep. We weighted the average GHG footprint based on the fact that beef makes up the majority (83%) of ruminant meat consumption, with sheep meat making up a smaller proportion (17%), according to data from the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Food Balances (FAO, 2025).

From Poore and Nemecek’s database, we also derived the average GHG emissions from consuming 1 kg of other protein-rich foods in place of ruminant meat. These foods were: pig meat (pork), poultry meat, eggs, fish (farmed), crustaceans (farmed), peas, other pulses, groundnuts, nuts, and tofu, which are all around 20% protein by weight. Using FAO data on food availability in 2022 as a proxy for consumption, we calculated that the weighted average of these substitutes is 0.01 t CO₂‑eq /kg.

We subtracted the weighted average emissions of these protein-rich foods (0.01 t CO₂‑eq /kg) from the weighted average emissions from ruminant meat production (0.075 t CO₂‑eq /kg) to calculate the emissions savings (0.065 t CO₂‑eq /kg) (Table 1). Our analysis assumed that substituting a serving of plant- or animal-based protein for ruminant meat reduces the production of that meat (see Caveats).

Kim et al. (2020) did not provide species-specific emissions, but we assumed that for ruminant meat, the breakdown of CO₂, nitrous oxide, and methane was the same as in Poore and Nemecek (2018) – 43% methane and 57% CO₂ and nitrous oxide.

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Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /kg avoided ruminant meat

mean (weighted average)

0.065

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /kg avoided ruminant meat

mean (weighted average)

0.13

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Cost

Based on our analysis, the average cost of 1 kg of ruminant meat was US$21.29 compared with the weighted average US$20.73 for other protein-rich foods. This resulted in a savings of US$0.56/kg of food. This translates to an estimated savings of US$8.54/t CO₂ eq (Table 2).

Since the publication of the EAT-Lancet Commission's dietary benchmarks, several studies have been published on the affordability of shifting to the diet (Gupta et al., 2021; Hirvonen et al., 2020; Li et al., 2024; Springmann et al., 2021). Research findings have been mixed on whether this diet shift reduces costs for consumers. One modeling study found that while the diet may cost less in upper-middle-income to high-income countries, on average, it may be more expensive in lower-middle-income to low-income countries (Springmann et al., 2021).

As opposed to the EAT-Lancet commission, our analysis focused solely on the shift from ruminant meat toward other protein-rich foods, which doesn’t include other dietary shifts, such as reducing other kinds of meat, reducing dairy, or increasing fruits and vegetables. We found no published evidence on the economic impacts of the shift away from ruminant meat alone. However, we used data from Bai et al. (2020), which used food price data from the World Bank’s International Comparison Program (ICP) (2011), to estimate cost differences between ruminant meat and substitutes.

We converted these prices into 2023 US$ and calculated a weighted average cost of food substitutes, based on food availability from the FAO Food Balances (2025).

The limited information used for this estimate can create bias, and we hope this work inspires research and data sharing on the economic impact of reduced ruminant consumption.

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Table 2. Cost per unit climate impact. Negative values reflect cost savings.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-year basis

mean

-8.54

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Learning Curve

Improve Diets does not have a learning curve associated with falling costs of adoption. This solution does not address synthetically derived animal products, such as lab-grown meat, which could serve as replacements for ruminant meat. See Advance Cultivated Meat for more information

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Speed of Action

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Improve Diets is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It has the potential to deliver a more rapid impact than nominal and delayed solutions. The impact of this solution is two-fold: first, it reduces methane from enteric fermentation and manure management. Second, the solution reduces pressure on natural ecosystems, reducing deforestation and other land use changes, which create a large, sudden “pulse” of CO₂ emissions.

Because emergency brake solutions can deliver their climate benefits quickly, they can help accelerate our efforts to address dangerous levels of climate change. For this reason, they are a high priority.

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Caveats

We did not include Low-Income Food-Deficit countries (FAO, 2023) in this analysis because the solution does not apply to people who do not have access to affordable and healthy alternatives to ruminant meat or those with micronutrient deficiencies.

Although some amino acids, which are building blocks of protein, are present in lower-than-optimal proportions for human needs in some plant-based foods, mixing plant protein sources, as is typically done in vegetarian diets, can address deficiencies (Mariotti & Gardner, 2019).

Additionality is a concern for this solution. While ruminant meat consumption in middle- to high-income countries remained fairly stable between 2010 and 2022, some high-income countries have recently started reducing their ruminant consumption (see Adoption Trends). However, it’s difficult to determine current adoption and trends from national-level statistics, which average out low and high consumers within a country.

Another consideration is that the decision to eat less ruminant meat will ultimately lead farmers to produce fewer ruminant animals, but the substitution may not be one-to-one. For example, one modeling study found that cutting beef consumption by 1 kg may only reduce beef production by 0.7 kg (Norwood & Lusk, 2011).

Humans use more land for animal agriculture than for any other activity. However, the potential to remove and store carbon from the atmosphere by freeing up the land used in food production, as estimated by Mbow et al. (2019), was not included in this analysis.

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Current Adoption

Household-level data on food consumption are limited and not often comparable. In this analysis, we summarized current levels of food consumption on a national level, based on data on food availability from FAO Food Balances (2025). Because the data are averaged at a country level, we couldn’t estimate the current level of adoption for individuals of reduced ruminant meat consumption or the EAT-Lancet diet.

The EAT-Lancet recommended threshold of 5.1 kg of ruminant meat per person per year is in edible, retail weight. However, available data on per capita food availability from the FAO Food Balances is measured in carcass weight, which, for beef cattle, is about 1.4 times larger than a retail cut of meat. Therefore, in this analysis, we set the threshold of excess consumption in the Food Balances as greater than 7.2 kg carcass weight per person per year, which is 5.1 kg of retail ruminant meat per person per year.

In 110 of the 146 countries tracked by FAO, average annual consumption was more than 5.1 kg of ruminant meat per person per year. Some of the highest consuming nations include Mongolia (70.1 kg/person/yr), Argentina (33.3 kg/person/yr), the United States (27.5 kg/person/yr), Australia (25.3 kg/person/yr), and Brazil (25 kg/person/yr).

The 36 high- and middle-income countries with low (<5.1 kg/person/year) ruminant meat consumption include India (2 kg/person/yr), Peru (3.6 kg/person/yr), Poland (0.2 kg/person/yr), Vietnam (3.9 kg/person/yr), and Indonesia (2.4 kg/person/yr).

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Adoption Trend

Ruminant meat consumption in high- and middle-income countries remained fairly stable between 2010 and 2022, according to data from FAO’s Food Balances, increasing only 3% overall from 8.2 to 8.5 kg/person/yr.

However, per capita ruminant meat consumption across high-consuming regions (the Americas, Europe, and Oceania) decreased. Consumption in South America and North America declined by 13% and 2%, respectively. Europe and Oceania saw the greatest declines, at 18% and 38%, respectively.

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Adoption Ceiling

The adoption ceiling for this solution is the amount of total ruminant meat consumption across all 146 high- and middle-income countries tracked by the FAO. In 2022, the consumption of ruminant meat totaled 81.2 billion kg (Table 3).

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Table 3. Adoption ceiling.

Unit: kg avoided ruminant meat/yr

Estimate

81,200,000,000

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Achievable Adoption

If all of the 110 countries consuming more than the EAT-Lancet recommendation cut consumption to 5.1 kg/person/yr (which is about an 85 g serving of ruminant meat every six days), that would lower annual global ruminant meat consumption by about half (53%), or 42.9 billion kg/yr. We used this as the estimated high achievable adoption value. The low achievable adoption value we estimated to be half of this reduction (26%), or 21.4 billion kg/yr (Table 4).

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Table 4. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: kg avoided ruminant meat/yr

Current Adoption	Not Determined
Achievable – Low	21,400,000,000
Achievable – High	42,900,000,000
Adoption Ceiling	81,200,000,000

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Improving diets by reducing ruminant meat consumption globally could mitigate emissions by 1.4–5.3 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Table 5).

Therefore, reducing ruminant meat consumption and replacing it with any other form of plant or animal protein can have a substantial impact on GHG emissions. Such a diet shift can be adopted incrementally with small behavioral changes that together lead to globally significant reductions in GHG emissions.

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Table 5. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr

Current Adoption	Not Determined
Achievable – Low	1.40
Achievable – High	2.80
Adoption Ceiling	5.30

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr

Current Adoption	Not Determined
Achievable – Low	2.88
Achievable – High	5.76
Adoption Ceiling	10.90

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Additional Benefits

Food Security

Reducing ruminant meat in diets of high-income countries can improve food security (Searchinger et al., 2019). Productive cropland that is used to grow animal feed could instead be used to produce food for human consumption (Ripple et al., 2014a).

Health

Reducing ruminant meat consumption has multiple health benefits. Diets high in red meat have been linked to increased risk of overall mortality and mortality from cancer (Pan et al., 2012; Sinha et al., 2009). Excess red meat consumption is also associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, colorectal cancer, and weight gain (Bouvard et al., 2015; Bradbury et al., 2020; Kaluza et al., 2012; Pan et al., 2011; Vergnaud et al., 2010). Diets that incorporate other sources of protein such as fish, poultry, nuts, legumes, low-fat dairy, and whole grains are associated with a lower risk of mortality and a reduction in dietary saturated fat, and can improve the management of diabetes (Pan et al., 2012; Nelson et al., 2016; Toumpanakis et al., 2018).

Reducing demand for meat also has implications for health outcomes associated with livestock production. Animal agriculture, especially industrial and confined feeding operations, commonly uses antibiotics to prevent and treat infections in livestock (Casey et al., 2013). Consistent direct contact with livestock exposes people, especially farmworkers, to antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can lead to antibiotic-resistant health outcomes (Sun et al., 2020; Tang et al., 2017). Moreover, these exposures are not limited to farmworkers. In fact, a study in Pennsylvania found that people living near dairy/veal and swine industrial agriculture had a higher risk of developing methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections (Casey et al., 2013).

Equality

A lower demand for ruminant meat could promote environmental justice by reducing the amount of industrial animal agriculture operations. This may benefit communities near these operations by reducing exposure to air and water pollution, pathogens, and odors (Casey et al., 2013; Heederik et al., 2007; Steinfeld et al., 2006).

Nature Protection

Agricultural expansion for livestock production is a major driver of deforestation (Ripple et al., 2014b). Deforestation is associated with biodiversity loss through habitat degradation and destruction, as well as forest fragmentation (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Livestock farming can reduce the diversity of landscapes and can contribute to the loss of large carnivore, herbivore, and bird species (Ripple et al., 2015; Steinfeld et al., 2006). The clearing of forests for animal agriculture is especially prevalent in the tropics, and a lower demand for meat, particularly ruminant meat, could reduce tropical deforestation (Ripple et al., 2014b).

Land Resources

Animal agriculture, especially ruminants such as cattle, requires a lot of land (Nijdam et al., 2012). Life-cycle analyses have found that beef consistently requires the most land use among animal-based proteins (Nijdam et al., 2012; Meier & Christen, 2013; Searchinger et al., 2019). This high land use is mostly due to the amount of land needed to grow crops that eventually feed livestock (Ripple et al., 2014a). In the European Union, Westhoek et al. (2014) estimated that halving consumption of meat, dairy, and eggs would result in a 23% reduction in per capita cropland use.

Water Resources

While livestock is directly responsible for a small proportion of global water usage, a significant amount of water is required to produce forage and grain for animal feed (Steinfeld et al., 2006). In the United States, livestock production is the largest source of freshwater consumption, and producing 1 kg of animal protein uses 100 times more water than 1 kg of grain protein (Pimentel & Pimentel, 2003). Ruminant meats have some of the highest water usage rates of all animal protein sources (Kim et al., 2020; Searchinger et al., 2019; Steinfed et al., 2006).

Water Quality

Livestock production can contribute to water pollution directly and indirectly through feed production and processing (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Manure contains nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as drug residues, heavy metals, and pathogens (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Manure can pollute water directly from feedlots and can also leach into water sources when used as a fertilizer on croplands (Porter & Cox, 2020). For example, animal agriculture is one of the top polluters of water basins in central California (Harter et al., 2012)

Air Quality

In addition to CO₂, ruminant agriculture is a source of air pollutants such as methane, nitrous oxides, ammonia, and volatile organic compounds (Gerber et al., 2013). Fertilization of feed crops and deposition of manure on crops are the primary sources of nitrogen emissions from ruminant agriculture (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Air pollution in nearby communities can lead to poor odors and respiratory issues, which may affect stress levels and quality of life (Domingo et al., 2021; Heederik et al., 2007).

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Risks

A total replacement of ruminant meat with other food may reduce food availability in arid climates, where ruminants graze on land not suitable for crop production.

While the shift from ruminant meat consumption to chicken and pork would curtail some of the demand for animal feed, it would not be reduced as much as a shift from ruminants to plant-based foods.

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Interactions with Other Solutions

Reinforcing

Pastures for grazing ruminants occupy 34 million sq km of land, more than any other human activity (Foley et al., 2011). Curtailing the consumption of ruminants can significantly reduce demand for land and facilitate protection and restoration of carbon-rich ecosystems.

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Silvopasture represents a way to produce some ruminant meat and dairy in a more climate-friendly way. This impact can contribute to addressing emissions from ruminant production, but only as part of a program that strongly emphasizes diet change.

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Deploy Silvopasture

Cultivated meat shows promise for reducing emissions from animal agriculture, especially ruminant meat production. Although evidence about cultivated meat’s emissions reduction potential is limited, replacing beef or lamb with cultivated meat is a more promising way to reduce emissions than replacing chicken or pork.

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Advance Cultivated Meat

Use Feed Additives

Improve Nutrient Management

Lowering ruminant meat consumption might reduce the amount of manure available to manage, depending on whether it is substituted with plant-based foods or other meat.

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Improve Manure Management

Improved ruminant breeding could reduce methane emissions from ruminants that are managed on pasture or rangelands. However, intentionally breeding ruminants for reduced methane production is in its early stages, and deploying this solution across multiple species and breeds could take time. Improved breeding could reduce emissions from ruminant agriculture which could reduce the effectiveness of the Improve Diet solution.

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Improve Ruminant Breeding

Dashboard

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

kg avoided ruminant meat

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit

0.065

Adoption

units/yr

Current Not Determined 02.14×10¹⁰4.29×10¹⁰

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current Not Determined 1.42.8

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

-9

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂, CH₄ , N₂O

Trade-offs

There are climate and environmental trade-offs associated with the production of different kinds of protein. Producing ruminant meat is land-intensive and contributes to the conversion of natural ecosystems to pasture and animal feed. However, ruminants can live on land that is too dry for crop production and graze on plants not suitable for human consumption. In some low-income food-insecure countries (not included in this analysis), grazing animals may be an important source of protein.

Substituting ruminant meat with chicken, fish, or other meat can substantially reduce methane emissions, but comes with some environmental and animal welfare trade-offs.

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Select data layer

kg/person/yr

0-10

10–20

20–30

30–40

> 40

Per capita ruminant meat consumption

Per capita ruminant meat consumption varies greatly around the world. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Mongolia had the highest per-person ruminant meat consumption (99 kg/person/yr) in 2022, followed by Argentina (47 kg/person/yr) and Turkmenistan (46 kg/person/yr).

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2025). FAO‑FAOSTAT: Food balances (2010–) [Data set, food balances for individual countries for the year 2022]. Retrieved March 25, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS

Select data layer

kg/person/yr

0-10

10–20

20–30

30–40

> 40

Per capita ruminant meat consumption

Maps Introduction

The emissions intensity of beef production varies considerably between countries, due to the contribution of regional deforestation and other land changes (Kim et al. 2020; Poore and Nemecek, 2018) and the intensity of different cattle raising systems, with extensive, pasture-based systems relatively less efficient (in terms of land and CO₂‑eq /kg beef) (Herrero et al. 2016). For example, GHG emissions per kilogram of bovine meat from Brazil and Paraguay were five and 17 times higher, respectively, than those of Danish bovine meat (Kim et al. 2020). These differences were attributable to higher deforestation for grazing lands and methane emissions from enteric fermentation.

Emissions from beef production are skewed by producers with particularly high impacts. About a quarter of beef producers contribute more than 56% (an estimated 1.3 Gt CO₂‑eq ) of all GHGs attributable to beef cattle production.

Beef consumption per person in Mongolia and North and South America is especially high, and reducing it can benefit human health (see Benefits to People & Nature). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Mongolia had the highest per-person ruminant meat consumption (99 kg/person/yr) in 2022, followed by Argentina (47 kg/person/yr) and Turkmenistan (46 kg/person/yr).

For this analysis, we examined high- and middle-income countries that consume more than 5.1 kg/person/yr of ruminant meat (what we define as “excess consumption”). The United States has more excess ruminant meat consumption than any other country. A 2023 assessment of health survey data found that in the United States, about 12% of the population ate about half of all beef supplies (Willits-Smith et al., 2023).

Maps are based on global average emissions per kg of ruminant meat, which keeps the focus on consumption.

Action Word

Improve

Solution Title

Diets

Classification

Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Use a comprehensive approach to improving diets including both “hard” (e.g., regulations) and “soft” (e.g., educational programs) policies.
Ensure public procurement avoids ruminant meat and favors plant-rich diets as the default, especially in schools, hospitals, and cafeterias for public workers.
Require companies that sell food to the government to disclose Scope 3 supply-chain emissions and adopt science-based targets, including a no-deforestation commitment.
Develop national dietary guidelines based on health and environmental factors; ensure the guidelines are integrated throughout procurement policies, public education programs, and government food aid programs.
Establish coordination bodies with stakeholders, such as farmers, distributors, storage facilities, food processors, transportation companies, retail, and waste management services, to design the most optimal policy package.
Set ambitious local, national, and international goals and climate plans to improve diets and include the agricultural sector in emissions reduction targets.
Establish safety nets for growers, such as access to grants or low-interest capital, reliable access to price information, early warning systems for price fluctuations, and insurance programs.
Use financial instruments such as grants, subsidies, or tax exemptions to support farmers, producers, start-ups, infrastructure, and related technology.
Reallocate subsidies for ruminant animal agriculture to alternatives; provide extensive support to farmers and ranchers transitioning to more sustainable agriculture systems through financial assistance, buyout programs, and education programs.
Remove or reconfigure other subsidies that artificially deflate the price of meat, such as animal feed and manure storage facilities.
Require carbon footprint labels on food and produce.
Limit or prohibit the expansion of agricultural lands, especially for animal agriculture.
Restrict advertising for unhealthy foods and/or require disclosures for health and environmental impacts for adverts.
Work with the health-care industry to integrate plant-rich diets into public health programs, and educate the public on the benefits of plant-rich diets.
Expand extension services to help food retailers develop plant-based items, design menus, develop marketing materials, and provide other assistance to improve the profitability of plant-rich diets.
Implement a carbon tax on livestock or meat products in food-secure areas and ensure there is proper monitoring and enforcement capacity.
Use zoning laws to give plant-based and healthy food outlets better visibility or higher traffic locations; designate favorable spaces for plant-based food trucks and street vendors.
Create robust educational programs for schools and adults on plant-based and healthy cooking.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that teach the importance of plant-based diets and the environmental impacts of common foods.

Further information:

Government relations and public policy job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Legal job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Practitioners

Scale up production of nutrient-dense plant-based foods.
Create peer-to-peer networks to exchange best practices and local or industry troubleshooting tips.
Increase the visibility of plant-based diets through repetitive ad campaigns, product placement, and displays.
Design menus to avoid ruminant meat and center plant-based products.
Invest in R&D to improve plant-based products.
Develop culturally relevant plant-based products to support acceptance and uptake.
Develop mobile or web apps that help consumers plan and cook plant-based meals, find plant-based retailers, and learn about plant-rich diets.
Take advantage of financial incentives such as grants, subsidies, or tax exemptions.
Participate or help establish coordination bodies with stakeholders, such as farmers, distributors, storage facilities, food processors, transportation companies, retail, and waste management services, to design the most optimal food systems transformation.
Work with the health-care industry to integrate plant-rich diets into public health programs, and educate the public on the benefits of plant-rich diets.
Use labels to show the environmental and emissions impact of food and menu items.
Hold local plant-based culinary challenges to promote products and services.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that promote plant-rich diets.

Further information:

Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Business Leaders

Establish company goals for ruminant substitution and incorporate them into corporate net-zero strategies.
Ensure company procurement avoids ruminant meat and favors plant-rich diets as the default.
Participate in or help establish coordination bodies with stakeholders, such as farmers, distributors, storage facilities, food processors, transportation companies, retail, and waste management services, to design the most optimal food systems transformation.
Take advantage of financial incentives such as grants, subsidies, or tax exemptions.
Offer financial services, including low-interest loans, micro-financing, and grants, to support initiatives promoting plant-rich diets.
Use labels to show the environmental and emissions impact of food and menu items.
Increase the visibility of plant-based diets through repetitive ad campaigns, product placement, and displays.
Fund start-ups or existing companies that are improving plant-based proteins and alternatives to animal agriculture.
Develop mobile or web apps that help consumers plan and cook plant-based meals, find plant-based retailers, and learn about plant-rich diets.
Hold local plant-based culinary challenges to promote products and services.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that promote plant-rich diets.
Include ruminant-free and plant-rich dietary support in employee wellness and benefits programs.

Further information:

Climate solutions at work. Project Drawdown (2021)
Drawdown-aligned business framework. Project Drawdown (2021)
Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Nonprofit Leaders

Ensure organization procurement avoids ruminant meat and favors plant-rich diets.
Help develop and advocate for ambitious local, national, and international goals and climate plans to improve diets.
Participate or help establish coordination bodies with stakeholders, such as farmers, distributors, storage facilities, food processors, transportation companies, retail, and waste management services, to design the most optimal food systems transformation.
Advocate to reallocate subsidies for ruminant agriculture to plant-based alternatives.
Advocate for financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support farmers, producers, start-ups, infrastructure, and related technology.
Advocate for standardized and mandatory carbon footprint labels on food and produce.
Advocate for a carbon tax on livestock or meat products in food-secure areas and ensure there is proper monitoring and enforcement capacity.
Offer comprehensive training and technical assistance programs for farmers and producers supporting plant-rich diets.
Implement campaigns promoting divestment from major animal agriculture polluters and challenge misleading claims on high-emissions meat products.
Work with the health-care industry to integrate plant-rich diets into public health programs, and educate the public on the benefits of plant-rich diets.
Create demonstration farms to show local examples, strategies to generate income, and how to use government programs.
Create robust educational programs for schools and adults on plant-based and healthy cooking.
Hold local plant-based culinary challenges to promote plant-rich diets.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that promote plant-rich diets.

Further information:

Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Investors

Ensure relevant portfolio companies avoid ruminant meat production and support plant-rich diets; avoid investing in animal agriculture in high-income countries or work with them to transition to plant-rich alternatives.
Invest in companies developing plant-based foods or technologies that support processing, such as equipment, transportation, and storage.
Fund start-ups or existing companies that are improving plant-based proteins and alternatives to animal agriculture.
Offer financial services, including low-interest loans, micro-financing, and grants, for plant-based food initiatives.
Participate or help establish coordination bodies with stakeholders, such as farmers, distributors, storage facilities, food processors, transportation companies, retail, and waste management services, to design the most optimal food systems transformation.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that promote plant-rich diets.

Further information:

Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Ensure organization procurement avoids ruminant meat and favors plant-rich diets.
Help develop and advocate for ambitious local, national, and international goals and climate plans to improve diets.
Participate or help establish coordination bodies with stakeholders, such as farmers, distributors, storage facilities, food processors, transportation companies, retail, and waste management services, to design the most optimal food systems transformation.
Invest in companies developing plant-based foods or technologies that support processing, such as equipment, transportation, and storage.
Fund start-ups or existing companies that are improving plant-based proteins and alternatives to ruminant animal agriculture.
Offer financial services, including low-interest loans, micro-financing, and grants, for plant-based food initiatives.
Advocate to reallocate subsidies for animal agriculture to plant-based alternatives.
Advocate for financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support plant-based farmers, producers, start-ups, infrastructure, and related technology.
Advocate for standardized and mandatory environmental impact labels on food and produce.
Advocate for a carbon tax on livestock or meat products in food-secure areas and ensure there is proper monitoring and enforcement capacity.
Offer comprehensive training and technical assistance programs for farmers and producers supporting plant-rich diets.
Create demonstration farms to show local examples, strategies to generate income, and how to use government programs.
Create robust educational programs for schools and adults on plant-based and healthy cooking.
Work with the health-care industry to integrate plant-rich diets into public health programs and educate the public on the benefits of plant-rich diets.
Integrate plant-rich diets with ecosystem protection and restoration efforts such as education campaigns, national plans, and international agreements, when relevant.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that promote plant-rich diets.

Further information:

Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Thought Leaders

Help develop and advocate for ambitious local, national, and international goals and climate plans to improve diets.
Participate or help establish coordination bodies with stakeholders, such as farmers, distributors, storage facilities, food processors, transportation companies, retail, and waste management services, to design the most optimal local food systems transformation.
Help shift policy and academic goals around agriculture from quantity of outputs to nutritional quality of outputs.
Help market and brand plant-based items appealing to average and/or conventional tastes.
Find new ways to appeal to high-red-meat consumers and new markets – particularly, men and athletic communities.
Highlight the social and environmental impacts of animal-based products in high-income countries.
Design and implement robust educational programs for schools and adults on plant-based and healthy cooking.
Advocate to reallocate subsidies for animal agriculture to plant-based alternatives.
Advocate for financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support plant-based farmers, producers, start-ups, infrastructure, and related technology.
Advocate for standardized and mandatory carbon footprint labels on food and produce.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that promote plant-rich diets.

Further information:

Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Technologists and Researchers

Research connections between plant-based agriculture and human well-being indicators such as nutrition, income, and human rights.
Develop new or improve existing plant-based or lab-grown alternatives to ruminant meat and other animal-based proteins.
Develop plant-based proteins that account for local supply chains and cultural preferences.
Analyze the full suite of interventions that encourage plant-based diets and offer recommendations to policy and lawmakers on the most effective options.
Use market data on food purchases and preferences to improve marketing and attractiveness of plant-based options.
Develop mobile or web apps that help consumers plan and cook plant-based meals, find plant-based retailers, and learn about plant-rich diets.
Research connections between plant-rich diets, food security, cultural cuisine preferences, and health indicators.
Help develop national dietary guidelines based on health and environmental factors.

Further information:

Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Communities, Households, and Individuals

Eat plant-rich diets and avoid ruminant meat as much as possible.
Offer alternatives to ruminant meat at social gatherings and request plant-based options at public events.
Talk to family, friends, and coworkers about avoiding beef; recommend your favorite restaurants, recipes, and cooking tips.
Support educational programs for schools and adults on plant-based and healthy cooking.
Advocate to reallocate subsidies for animal agriculture to plant-based alternatives.
Advocate for financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support plant-based farmers, producers, start-ups, infrastructure, and related technology.
Create, support, or join education campaigns and/or public-private partnerships that promote plant-rich diets.

Further information:

Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Sources

A review of policy levers to reduce meat production and consumption. Bryant et al. (2024)
Country-specific dietary shifts to mitigate climate and water crises. Kim et al. (2020)
The future of plant-based diets: Aligning healthy marketplace choices with equitable, resilient, and sustainable food systems. Kraak et al. (2024)
Increasing the uptake of plant-based diets: An analysis of the impact of a CO₂ food label. Maier (2024)
Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Poore & Nemecek (2018)
Future fit farming: Policy solutions for diverse, resilient agricultural systems. ProVeg (2024)
Barriers to adopting a plant-based diet in high-income countries: a systematic review. Rickerby & Green (2024)
Ruminants, climate change and climate policy. Ripple et al. (2014)
Dietary behavior as a target of environmental policy: Which policy instruments are adequate to incentivize plant-based diets? Scheilcher & Töller (2024)
Creating a sustainable food future: A menu of solutions to feed nearly 10 billion people by 2050. Searchinger et al. (2019)
The shift from meat to plant-based proteins: Consumers and public policy. Siegrist et al. (2024)
Livestock’s long shadow: Environmental issues and options. Steinfeld et al. (2006)
Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Willett et al. (2019)

Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing ruminant meat: High

There is a high level of consensus in the scientific literature that shifting diets away from ruminant meat mitigates GHG emissions. An IPCC special report on land found “broad agreement” that meat – particularly ruminant meat – was the single food with the greatest impact on the environment on a global basis, especially in terms of GHG emissions and land use (Mbow et al., 2019). The IPCC found that the range of cumulative emissions mitigation from diet shifts by 2050, depending on the type of shift, was as much as 2.7–6.4 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr. This estimate included shifts away from all meat, whereas our analysis focused on shifting away from ruminant meat alone.

The emissions associated with the production of different food products in this solution came from Poore and Nemecek (2018) and Kim et al. (2020). Poore and Nemecek developed a database of emissions footprints for different foods based on a meta-analysis of 570 studies with a median reference year of 2010 (Figure 1). It covers ~38,700 commercially viable farms in 119 countries and 40 products representing ~90% of global protein and calorie consumption.

According to Poore and Nemecek (2018), producing 1 kg of beef emits 33 times the GHGs emitted by producing protein-rich plant-based foods, such as beans, nuts, and lentils. But beef can also be replaced with any other non-ruminant meat (poultry, pork, or fish) to cut emissions. Substituting ruminant meat with any other kind of meat reduces average emissions by roughly 85%.

A 2024 study on dietary emissions from 140 food products in 139 countries found that shifting consumption toward the EAT-Lancet guidelines could reduce emissions from the food system 17%, or about 1.94 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Li, Y. et al., 2024).

The results presented in this document summarize findings from 42 studies (34 academic reviews and original studies, three reports from NGOs, and five reports from public and multilateral organizations). The results reflect current evidence from 119 countries, but observations are concentrated in Europe, North America, Oceania, Brazil, and China, and limited in Africa and parts of Asia. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

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Updated Date

Fri, 10/10/2025 - 12:00

Read more about Improve Diets

Increase Centralized Composting

Submitted by Drawdown Admin on Sat, 02/15/2025 - 15:02

Sector

Industry, Materials & Waste

Mode

Cut Emissions

Cluster

Use Waste as a Resource

Image

Coming Soon

Off

Summary

A composting system diverts organic waste (OW) from landfills, reducing the production of methane and other GHG emissions. OW is defined as the combination of food waste and green waste, composed of yard and garden trimmings. Composting transforms it into a nutrient-rich soil supplement.

Our focus is on centralized (city- or regional-level) composting systems for the OW components of municipal solid waste (MSW). Decentralized (home- and community-level) and on-farm composting are also valuable climate actions, but are not included here due to limited data availability at the global level (see Increase Decentralized Composting).

Overview

There are many stages involved in a composting system to convert organic MSW into finished compost that can be used to improve soil health (Figure 1). Within this system, composting is the biochemical process that transforms OW into a soil amendment rich in nutrients and organic matter.

The composting process is based on aerobic decomposition, driven by complex interactions among microorganisms, biodegradable materials, and invertebrates and mediated by water and oxygen (see the Appendix). Without the proper balance of oxygen and water, anaerobic decomposition occurs, leading to higher methane emissions during the composting process (Amuah et al., 2022; Manea et al., 2024). Multiple composting methods can be used depending on the amounts and composition of OW feedstocks, land availability, labor availability, finances, policy landscapes, and geography. Some common methods include windrow composting, bay or bin systems, and aerated static piles (Figure 2; Amuah et al., 2022; Ayilara et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2023).

Figure 2. Examples of commonly used centralized composting methods. Bay systems (left) move organics between different bays at different stages of the composting process. Windrows (center) are long, narrow piles that are often turned using large machinery. Aerated static piles (right) can be passively aerated as shown here or actively aerated with specialized blowing equipment.

Credit: Bays, iStock | nikolay100; Windrows, iStock | Jeremy Christensen; Aerated static pile, iStock | AscentXmedia

Centralized composting generally refers to processing large quantities (>90 t/week) of organic MSW (Platt, 2017). Local governments often manage centralized composting as part of an integrated waste management system that can also include recycling non-OW, processing OW anaerobically in methane digesters, landfilling, and incineration (Kaza et al., 2018).

Organic components of MSW include food waste and garden and yard trimmings (Figure 2). In most countries and territories, these make up 40–70% of MSW, with food waste as the largest contribution (Ayilara et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2023; Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2019; Kaza et al., 2018; Manea et al., 2024; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA], 2020; U.S. EPA, 2023).

Diverting OW, particularly food waste, from landfill disposal to composting reduces GHG emissions (Ayilara et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2023; FAO, 2019). Diversion of organics from incineration could also have emissions and pollution reduction benefits, but we did not include incineration as a baseline disposal method for comparison since it is predominantly used in high-capacity and higher resourced countries and contributes less than 1% to annual waste-sector emissions (Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change [IPCC], 2023; Kaza et al., 2018).

Disposal of waste in landfills leads to methane emissions estimated at nearly 1.9 Gt CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis) annually (International Energy Agency [IEA], 2024). Landfill emissions come from anaerobic decomposition of inorganic waste and OW and are primarily methane with smaller contributions from ammonia, nitrous oxide, and CO₂ (Cao et al., 2023; Kawai et al., 2020; Manea et al., 2024). Although CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide are released during composting, methane emissions are up to two orders of magnitude lower than emissions from landfilling for each metric ton of waste (Ayilara et al., 2020; Cao et al, 2023; FAO, 2019; IEA, 2024; Nordahl et al., 2023; Perez et al., 2023). GHG emissions can be minimized by fine-tuning the nutrient balance during composting.

Depending on the specifics of the composting method used, the full transformation from initial feedstocks to finished compost can take weeks or months (Amuah et al., 2022; Manea et al., 2024; Perez et al., 2023). Finished compost can be sold and used in a variety of ways, including application to agricultural lands and green spaces as well as for soil remediation (Gilbert et al., 2020; Platt et al., 2022; Ricci-Jürgensen et al., 2020a; Sánchez et al., 2025).

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Credits

Lead Fellow

Megan Matthews, Ph. D.

Contributors

Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Daniel Jasper
Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

Aiyana Bodi
Hannah Henkin
Ted Otte
Sarah Gleeson, Ph. D.
Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.
Paul C. West, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

We estimated that composting reduces emissions by 3.9 t CO₂‑eq /t OW (9.3 t CO₂‑eq /t OW, 20-yr basis) based on avoided landfill emissions minus the emissions during composting of MSW OW (Table 1). In our analysis, composting emissions were an order of magnitude lower than landfill emissions.

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Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/t OW

25th percentile	2.5
mean	3.2
median (50th percentile)	3.9
75th percentile	4.3

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Emissions data from composting and landfilling OW are geographically limited, but our analysis includes three global reports and studies from the U.S., China, Denmark, and the EU (European Energy Agency [EEA], 2024; Industrious Labs, 2024; Perez et al., 2023; U.S. EPA, 2020; Yang et al., 2017, Yasmin et al., 2022). We assumed OW was 39% of MSW in accordance with global averages (Kaza et al., 2018; World Bank, 2018).

We estimated that landfills emit 4.3 t CO₂‑eq /t OW (9.9 t CO₂‑eq /t OW, 20-yr basis). We estimated composting emissions were 10x lower at 0.4 t CO₂‑eq /t OW (0.6 t CO₂‑eq /t OW, 20-yr basis). We quantified emissions from a variety of composting methods and feedstock mixes (Cao et al., 2023; Perez et al., 2023; Yasmin et al., 2022). Consistent with Amuah et al. (2022), we assumed a 60% moisture content by weight to convert reported wet waste quantities to dry waste weights. We based effectiveness estimates only on dry OW weights. For adoption and cost, we did not distinguish between wet and dry OW.

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Cost

Financial data were geographically limited. We based cost estimates on global reports with selected studies from the U.K., U.S., India, and Saudi Arabia for landfilling and the U.S. and Sri Lanka for composting. Transportation and collection costs can be significant in waste management, but we did not include them in this analysis. We calculated amortized net cost for landfilling and composting by subtracting revenues from operating costs and amortized initial costs over a 30-yr facility lifetime.

Landfill initial costs are one-time investments, while operating expenses, which include maintenance, wages, and labor, vary annually. Environmental costs, including post-closure operations, are not included in our analysis, but some countries impose taxes on landfilling to incentivize alternative disposal methods and offset remediation costs. Landfills generate revenue through tip fees and sales of landfill gas (Environmental Research & Education Foundation [EREF], 2023; Kaza et al., 2018). We estimated that landfilling is profitable, with a net cost of –US$30/t OW.

Initial and operational costs for centralized composting vary depending on method and scale (IPCC, 2023; Manea et al., 2024), but up-front costs are generally cheaper than landfilling. Since composting is labor-intensive and requires monitoring, operating costs can be higher, particularly in regions that do not impose landfilling fees (Manea et al., 2024).

Composting facilities generate revenue through tip fees and sales of compost products. Compost sales alone may not be sufficient to recoup costs, but medium- to large-scale composting facilities are economically viable options for municipalities (Kawai et al., 2020; Manea et al., 2024). We estimated the net composting cost to be US$20/t OW. The positive value indicates that composting is not globally profitable; however, decentralized systems that locally process smaller waste quantities can be profitable using low-cost but highly efficient equipment and methods (see Increase Decentralized Composting).

We estimated that composting costs US$50/t OW more than landfilling. Although composting systems cost more to implement, the societal and environmental costs are greatly reduced compared to landfilling (Yasmin et al., 2022). The high implementation cost is a barrier to adoption in lower-resourced and developing countries (Wilson et al., 2024).

Combining effectiveness with the net costs presented here, we estimated a cost per unit climate impact of US$10/t CO₂‑eq (US$5/t CO₂‑eq , 20-yr basis) (Table 2).

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Table 2. Cost per unit climate impact.

Unit: US$ (2023)/t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)

median

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Learning Curve

Global cost data on composting are limited, and costs can vary depending on composting methods, so we did not quantify a learning rate for centralized composting.

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Speed of Action

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Increase Centralized Composting is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It has the potential to deliver a more rapid impact than nominal and delayed solutions. Because emergency brake solutions can deliver their climate benefits quickly, they can help accelerate our efforts to address dangerous levels of climate change. For this reason, they are a high priority.

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Caveats

The composting process has a low risk of reversal since carbon is stored stably in finished compost instead of decaying and releasing methane in a landfill (Ayilara et al., 2020; Manea et al., 2024). However, a composting system, from collection to finished product, can be challenging to sustain. Along with nitrogen-rich food and green waste, additional carbon-rich biomass, called bulking material, is critical for maintaining optimal composting conditions that minimize GHG emissions. Guaranteeing the availability of sufficient bulking materials can challenge the success of both centralized and decentralized facilities.

Financially and environmentally sustainable composting depends not only on the quality of incoming OW feedstocks, but also on the quality of the final product. Composting businesses require a market for sales of compost products (in green spaces and/or agriculture), and poor source separation could lead to low-quality compost and reduced demand (Kawai et al., 2020; Wilson et al., 2024). Improvements in data collection and quality through good feedback mechanisms can also act as leverage for expanding compost markets, pilot programs, and growing community support.

If composting facilities close due to financial or other barriers, local governments may revert to disposing of organics in landfills. Zoning restrictions also vary broadly across geographies, affecting how easily composting can be implemented (Cao et al., 2023). In regions where centralized composting is just starting, reversal could be more likely without community engagement and local government support (Kawai et al., 2020; Maalouf & Agamuthu, 2023); however, even if facilities close, the emissions savings from past operation cannot be reversed.

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Current Adoption

We estimated global composting adoption at 78 million t OW/yr, as the median between two datasets (Table 3). The most recent global data on composting were compiled in 2018 from an analysis from 174 countries and territories (World Bank, 2018). We also used an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) analysis from 45 countries (OECD, 2021). However, there were still many countries and territories that did not report composting data in one or both datasets. Although the World Bank dataset is comprehensive, it is based on data collected in 2011–2018, so more recent, high-quality, global data on composting are needed.

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Table 3. Current adoption level (2021).

Unit: t OW composted/yr

25th percentile	67,000,000
mean	78,000,000
median (50th percentile)	78,000,000
75th percentile	89,000,000

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Globally in 2018, nearly 40% of all waste was disposed of in landfills, 19% was recovered through composting and other recovery and recycling methods, and the remaining waste was either unaccounted for or disposed of through open dumping and wastewater (Kaza et al., 2018)

We calculated total tonnage composted using the reported composting percentages and the total MSW tonnage for each country. Composting percentages were consistently lower than the total percentage of OW present in MSW, suggesting there is ample opportunity for increased composting, even in geographies where it is an established disposal method. In 2018, 26 countries/territories had a composting rate above 10% of MSW, and 15 countries/territories had a composting rate above 20% of MSW. Countries with the highest composting rates were Austria (31%), the Netherlands (27%), and Switzerland (21%) (World Bank, 2018).

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Adoption Trend

We used OECD data to estimate the composting adoption trend from 2014–2021 (OECD, 2021), which fluctuated significantly from year to year (Table 4). Negative rates indicate less OW was composted globally than in the previous year. Taking the median composting rate across seven years, we estimate the global composting trend as 260,000 t OW/yr/yr. However, the mean composting trend is –1.3 Mt OW/yr/yr, suggesting that on average, composting rates are decreasing globally.

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Table 4. Adoption trend (2014–2021).

Unit: t OW composted/yr/yr

25th percentile	-1,200,000
mean	-1,300,000
median (50th percentile)	260,000
75th percentile	4,300,000

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Although some regions are increasing their composting capacity, others are either not composting or composting less over time. Germany, Italy, Spain, and the EU overall consistently show increases in composting rates year-to-year, while Greece, Japan, Türkiye, and the U.K. show decreasing composting rates. In Europe, the main drivers for consistent adoption were disposal costs, financial penalties, and the landfill directive (Ayilara et al., 2020).

Lack of reported data could also contribute to a negative global average composting rate over the past seven years. A large decline in composting rates from 2018–2019 was driven by a lack of data in 2019 for the U.S. and Canada. If we assumed that the U.S. composted the same tonnage in 2019 as in 2018, instead of no tonnage as reported in the data, then the annual trend for 2018–2019 is much less negative (–450,000 t OW/yr/yr) and the overall mean trend between 2014–2019 would be positive (1,400,000 t OW/yr/yr).

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Adoption Ceiling

We estimate the global adoption ceiling for Increase Centralized Composting to be 991 million t OW/yr (Table 5). In 2016, 2.01 Gt of MSW were generated, and generation is expected to increase to 3.4 Gt by 2050 (Kaza et al., 2018). Due to limited global data availability on composting infrastructure or policies, we estimated the adoption ceiling based on the projected total MSW for 2050 and assumed the OW fraction remains the same over time.

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Table 5. Adoption ceiling. upper limit for adoption level.

Unit: t OW composted/yr

median (50th percentile)

991,000,000

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In reality, amounts of food waste within MSW are also increasing, suggesting that there are sufficient global feedstocks to support widespread composting adoption (Zhu et al., 2023).

We assume that 75% of OW could be processed via composting and the remaining 25% via methane digesters (see Deploy Methane Digesters). Biowaste from MSW makes up approximately 15% of incoming feedstocks for methane digesters (IEA, 2025).

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Achievable Adoption

Since the global annual trend fluctuates, we used country-specific composting rates and organic fractions of MSW from 2018 to estimate the achievable range of composting adoption (see Appendix for an example). In our analysis, achievable increases in country-specific composting rates cannot exceed the total organic fraction of 2018 MSW.

For the 106 countries/territories that did not report composting rates, we defined achievable levels of composting relative to the fraction of OW in MSW. When countries also did not report OW percentages, the country-specific composting rate was kept at zero. For the remaining 86 countries/territories, we assumed that 25% of organic MSW could be diverted to composting for low achievable adoption and that 50% could be diverted for high achievable adoption.

For the 68 countries/territories with reported composting rates, we define low and high achievable adoption as a 25% or 50% increase to the country-specific composting rate, respectively. If the increased rate for either low or high adoption exceeded the country-specific OW fraction of MSW, we assumed that all organic MSW could be composted (see Appendix for an example). Our Achievable – Low adoption level is 156 Mt OW/yr, or 16% of our estimated adoption ceiling (Table 6). Our Achievable – High adoption level is 244 Mt OW/yr, or 25% of our estimated adoption ceiling.

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Table 6. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: t OW composted/yr

Current Adoption	78,000,000
Achievable – Low	156,000,000
Achievable – High	244,000,000
Adoption Ceiling	991,000,000

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Our estimated adoption levels are conservative because some regions without centralized composting of MSW could have subnational decentralized composting programs that aren’t reflected in global data.

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Although our achievable range is conservative compared to the estimated adoption ceiling, increased composting has the potential to reduce GHG emissions from landfills (Table 7). We estimated that current adoption reduces annual GHG emissions by 0.3 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (0.73 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 20-yr basis). Our estimated low and high achievable adoption levels reduce 0.60 and 0.95 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (1.4 and 2.3 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 20-yr basis), respectively. Using the adoption ceiling, we estimate that annual GHG reductions increase to 3.8 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (9.2 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 20-yr basis).

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Table 7. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/yr

Current Adoption	0.30
Achievable – Low	0.60
Achievable – High	0.95
Adoption Ceiling	3.8

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The IPCC estimated in 2023 that the entire waste sector accounted for 3.9% of total global GHG emissions, and solid waste management represented 36% of total waste sector emissions (IPCC, 2023). Disposal of waste in landfills leads to methane emissions estimated at nearly 1.9 Gt CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis) annually (IEA, 2024). Based on these estimates, current composting adoption reduces annual methane emissions from landfills more than 16%.

Increasing adoption to low and high achievable levels could reduce the amount of OW going to landfills by up to 40% and avoid 32–50% of landfill emissions. Reaching our estimated adoption ceilings for both Increase Centralized Composting and Deploy Methane Digesters solutions could avoid all food-related landfill emissions.

These climate impacts can be considered underestimates of beneficial mitigation from increased composting since we did not quantify the carbon sequestration benefits of compost application and reduced synthetic fertilizer use. Our estimated climate impacts from composting are also an underestimate because we didn’t include decentralized composting.

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Additional Benefits

Income and Work

Composting creates more jobs than landfills or incinerators and can save money compared with other waste management options (Bekchanov & Mirzabaev, 2018; Farhidi et al., 2022; Platt et al., 2013; Zaman, 2016). It is less expensive to build and maintain composting plants than incinerators (Kawai et al., 2020). According to a survey of Maryland waste sites, composting creates twice as many jobs as landfills and four times as many jobs as incineration plants (Platt et al., 2013). Composting also indirectly sustains jobs in the distribution and use of compost products (Platt et al., 2013). Compost is rich in nutrients and can also reduce costs associated with synthetic fertilizer use in agriculture (Farhidi et al., 2022).

Health

Odors coming from anaerobic decomposition landfills, such as ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, are another source of pollutants that impact human well-being, which can be reduced by aerobic composting (Cai et al., 2018).

Equality

Reducing community exposure to air pollution from landfills through composting has implications for environmental justice (Casey et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2023). A large review of waste sites in the United States and Europe found that landfills are disproportionately located near populations with low socioeconomic status and near racially and ethnically marginalized neighborhoods (Marzutti et al., 2010). Reducing disproportionate exposures to air pollution from landfills may mitigate poor health outcomes in surrounding communities (Brender et al., 2011)

Land Resources

Compost provides an important soil amendment that adds organic matter and nutrients to soil, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers (Urra et al., 2019; U.S. EPA, 2025). Healthy soils that are rich in organic matter can benefit the surrounding ecosystem and watershed and lead to more plant growth through improved water retention and filtration, improved soil quality and structure, and reduced erosion and nutrient runoff (Bell & Platt, 2014; Martinez-Blanco et al., 2013; U.S. EPA, 2025). By reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers and by improving soils’ ability to filter and conserve water, compost can also reduce eutrophication of water bodies (U.S. EPA, 2025). These soil benefits are partially dependent on how compost is sorted because there may be risks associated with contamination of microplastics and heavy metals (Manea et al., 2024; Urra et al., 2019).

Water Resources

For a description of water resources benefits, please see Land Resources above.

Air Quality

Composting can reduce air pollution such as CO₂, methane, volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter that is commonly released from landfills and waste-to-energy systems (Kawai et al., 2020; Nordahl et al., 2020; Siddiqua et al., 2022). An analysis comparing emissions from MSW systems found composting to have lower emissions than landfilling and other waste-to-energy streams (Nordahl et al., 2020). Composting can also reduce the incidence of landfill fires, which release black carbon and carbon monoxide, posing risks to the health and safety of people in nearby communities (Nguyen et al., 2023).

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Risks

Before the composting process can start, feedstocks are sorted to remove potential contaminants, including nonbiodegradable materials such as metal and glass as well as plastics, bioplastics, and paper products (Kawai et al., 2020; Perez et al., 2023; Wilson et al., 2024). While most contaminants can be removed through a variety of manual and mechanical sorting techniques, heavy metals and microplastics can become potential safety hazards or reduce finished compost quality (Manea et al., 2024). Paper and cardboard should be separated from food and green waste streams because they often contain contaminants such as glue or ink, and they degrade more slowly than other OW, leading to longer processing time and lower-quality finished compost (Kawai et al., 2020; Krause et al., 2023).

Successful and safe composting requires careful monitoring of compost piles to avoid anaerobic conditions and ensure sufficient temperatures to kill pathogens and weed seeds (Amuah et al., 2022; Ayilara et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2023; Kawai et al., 2020; Manea et al., 2024). Anaerobic conditions within the compost pile increase GHGs emitted during composting. Poorly managed composting facilities can also pose safety risks for workers and release odors, leading to community backlash (Cao et al., 2023; Manea et al., 2024; UNEP, 2024). Regional standards, certifications, and composter training programs are necessary to protect workers from hazardous conditions and to guarantee a safe and effective compost product (Kawai et al., 2020). Community outreach and education on the benefits of separating waste and composting prevent “not-in-my-backyard” attitudes or “NIMBYism” (Brown, 2015; Platt & Fagundes 2018) that may lead to siting composting facilities further from the communities they serve (Souza, et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2018).

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Interactions with Other Solutions

Reinforcing

Increased composting could positively impact annual cropping by providing consistent, high-quality finished compost that can reduce dependence on synthetic fertilizers and improve soil health and crop yields.

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Improve Annual Cropping

High-quality sorting systems also allow for synergies that benefit all waste streams and create flexible, resilient waste management systems. Improving waste separation programs for composting can have spillover effects that also improve other waste streams, such as recyclables, agricultural waste, or e-waste. Access to well-sorted materials can also help with nutrient balance for various waste streams, including agricultural waste.

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Composting facilities require a reliable source of carbon-rich bulking material. Agricultural waste can be diverted to composting rather than burning to reduce emissions from crop residue burning.

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Reduce Crop Residue Burning

Competing

Diverting OW from landfills will lead to lower landfill methane emissions and, therefore, less methane available to be captured and resold as revenue.

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Improve Landfill Management

OW diverted from landfills can also be managed using anaerobic digestion in methane digesters, which reduces the available volumes of OW for composting.

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Deploy Methane Digesters

Dashboard

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

t organic waste

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit

02.53.9

Adoption

units/yr

Current 7.8×10⁷ 01.56×10⁸2.44×10⁸

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.3 0.60.95

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂, CH₄

Trade-offs

Robust collection networks and source separation of OW are vital for successful composting, but they also increase investment costs. However, well-sorted OW can reduce the need for separation equipment and allow for simpler facility designs, leading to lower operational costs. The emissions from transporting OW are not included here, but are expected to be significantly less than the avoided landfill emissions. Composting facilities are typically located close to the source of OW (Kawai et al., 2020; U.S. Composting Council [USCC], 2008), but since centralized composting facilities are designed to serve large communities and municipalities, there can be trade-offs between sufficient land availability and distance from waste sources.

We also exclude emissions from onsite vehicles and equipment such as bulldozers and compactors, assuming that those emissions are small compared to the landfill itself.

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Action Word

Increase

Solution Title

Centralized Composting

Classification

Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Establish zero waste and OW diversion goals; incorporate them into local or national climate plans and soil health and conservation policies.
Ensure public procurement uses local compost when possible.
Participate in consultations with farmers, businesses, and the public to determine where to place plants, how to use compost, pricing, and how to roll out programs.
Establish or improve existing centralized composting facilities, collection networks, and storage facilities.
Establish incentives and programs to encourage both centralized and decentralized composting.
Work with farmers, local gardeners, the private sector, and local park systems to develop markets for compost.
Invest in source separation education and waste separation technology that enhances the quality of final compost products.
Regulate the use of waste separation technologies to prioritize source separation of waste and the quality of compost products.
Ensure low- and middle-income households are served by composting programs with particular attention to underserved communities such as multi-family buildings and rural households.
Enact extended producer responsibility approaches that hold producers accountable for waste.
Create demonstration projects to show the effectiveness and safety of finished compost.
Ensure composting plants are placed as close to farmland as possible and do not adversely affect surrounding communities.
Streamline permitting processes for centralized compost facilities and infrastructure.
Establish laws or regulations that require waste separation as close to the source as possible, ensuring the rules are effective and practical.
Establish zoning policies that support both centralized and decentralized composting efforts, including at the industrial, agricultural, community, and backyard scales.
Establish fees or fines for OW going to landfills; use funds for composting programs.
Use financial instruments such as taxes, subsidies, or exemptions to support infrastructure, participation, and waste separation.
Partner with schools, community gardens, farms, nonprofits, women’s groups, and other community organizations to promote composting and teach the importance of waste separation.
Establish one-stop-shop educational programs that use online and in-person methods to teach how to separate waste effectively and why it’s important.
If composting is not possible or additional infrastructure is needed, consider methane digesters as alternatives to composting.
Create, support, or join certification programs that verify the quality of compost and/or verify food waste suppliers such as hotels, restaurants, and cafes.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)
Government relations and public policy job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)
Legal job function action guide. Project Drawdown (2022)

Practitioners

Work with policymakers and local communities to establish zero-waste and OW diversion goals for local or national climate plans.
Participate in consultations with farmers, policymakers, businesses, and the public to determine where to place plants, how to use compost, pricing, and how to roll out programs.
Work with farmers, local gardeners, the private sector, and local park systems to create quality supply streams and develop markets for compost.
Invest in source separation education and waste separation technology that enhances the quality of final compost products.
Establish one-stop-shop educational programs that use online and in-person methods to teach how to separate waste effectively and why that’s important.
Ensure low- and middle-income households are served by composting programs with particular attention to underserved communities such as multi-family buildings and rural households.
Create demonstration projects to show the effectiveness and safety of finished compost.
Ensure composting plants are placed as close to farmland as possible and do not adversely affect surrounding communities.
Take advantage of financial incentives such as subsidies or exemptions to set up centralized composting infrastructure, increase participation, and improve waste separation.
Partner with schools, community gardens, farms, nonprofits, women’s groups, and other community organizations to promote composting and teach the importance of waste separation.
Consider partnerships through initiatives such as sister cities to share innovation and develop capacity.
If additional infrastructure is needed, consider methane digesters as alternatives to composting.
Create, support, or join certification programs that verify the quality of compost and/or verify food waste suppliers such as hotels, restaurants, and cafes.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)

Business Leaders

Establish zero-waste and OW diversion goals; incorporate the goals into corporate net-zero strategies.
Ensure procurement uses strategies to reduce FLW at all stages of the supply chain; consider using the Food Loss and Waste Protocol.
Ensure corporate procurement and facilities managers use local compost when possible.
Participate in consultations with farmers, policymakers, and the public to determine where to place plants, how to use compost, pricing, and how to roll out programs.
Work with farmers, local gardeners, the private sector, and local park systems to develop markets for compost.
Offer employee pre-tax benefits on materials to compost at home or participate in municipal composting programs.
Offer financial services, including low-interest loans, microfinancing, and grants, to support composting initiatives.
Support extended producer responsibility approaches that hold producers accountable for waste.
Educate employees on the benefits of composting, include them in companywide waste diversion initiatives, and encourage them to use and advocate for municipal composting in their communities. Clearly label containers and signage for composting.
Partner with schools, community gardens, farms, nonprofits, women’s groups, and other community organizations to promote composting and teach the importance of waste separation.
Create, support, or join certification programs that verify the quality of compost and/or verify food waste suppliers such as hotels, restaurants, and cafes.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)
Climate solutions at work. Project Drawdown (2021)
Drawdown-aligned business framework. Project Drawdown (2021)

Nonprofit Leaders

Help policymakers establish zero-waste and OW diversion goals; help incorporate them into local or national climate plans.
Ensure organizational procurement uses local compost when possible.
Help administer, fund, or promote local composting programs.
Help gather data on local OW streams, potential markets, and comparisons of alternative uses such as methane digesters.
Participate in consultations with farmers, policymakers, businesses, and the public to determine where to place plants, how to use compost, pricing, and how to roll out programs.
Work with farmers, local gardeners, the private sector, and local park systems to develop markets for compost.
Help ensure low- and middle-income households are served by composting programs with particular attention to underserved communities such as multi-family buildings and rural households.
Advocate for extended producer responsibility approaches that hold producers accountable for waste.
Advocate for laws or regulations that require waste separation as close to the source as possible, ensuring the rules are effective and practical.
Create demonstration projects to show the effectiveness and safety of finished compost.
Establish one-stop-shop educational programs that use online and in-person methods to teach how to separate waste effectively and why that’s important.
Partner with schools, community gardens, farms, nonprofits, women’s groups, and other community organizations to promote composting and teach the importance of waste separation.
Create, support, or join certification programs that verify the quality of compost and/or verify food waste suppliers such as hotels, restaurants, and cafes.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)

Investors

Ensure relevant portfolio companies separate waste streams, contribute to compost programs, and/or use finished compost.
Invest in companies developing composting programs or technologies that support the process, such as equipment, circular supply chains, and consumer products.
Fund start-ups or existing companies that are improving waste separation technology that enhances the quality of final compost products.
Offer financial services, including low-interest loans, microfinancing, and grants, to support composting initiatives.
Invest in companies that adhere to extended producer responsibility or encourage portfolio companies to adopt the policies.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Help policymakers establish zero-waste and OW diversion goals; help incorporate them into local or national climate plans.
Advocate for businesses to establish time-bound and transparent zero-waste and OW diversion goals.
Advocate for extended producer responsibility approaches that hold producers accountable for waste.
Provide financing and capacity building for low- and middle-income countries to establish composting infrastructure and programs.
Help administer, fund, or promote composting programs.
Invest in companies developing composting programs or technologies that support the process, such as equipment, circular supply chains, and consumer products.
Fund startups or existing companies that are improving waste separation technology that enhances the quality of final compost products.
Incubate and fund mission-driven organizations and cooperatives that are advancing OW composting.
Offer financial services, including low-interest loans, microfinancing, and grants, to support composting initiatives.
Participate in consultations with farmers, policymakers, businesses, and the public to determine where to place plants, how to use compost, pricing, and how to roll out programs.
Work with farmers, local gardeners, the private sector, and local park systems to develop markets for compost.
Help ensure low- and middle-income households are served by composting programs, with particular attention to underserved communities such as multifamily buildings and rural households.
Advocate for laws or regulations that require waste separation as close to the source as possible, ensuring the rules are effective and practical.
Create demonstration projects to show the effectiveness and safety of finished compost.
Research and enact effective composting promotional strategies.
Establish one-stop-shop educational programs that use online and in-person methods to teach how to separate waste effectively and why that’s important.
Partner with schools, community gardens, farms, nonprofits, women’s groups, and other community organizations to promote composting and teach the importance of waste separation.
Create, support, or join certification programs that verify the quality of compost and/or verify food waste suppliers such as hotels, restaurants, and cafes.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)

Thought Leaders

Participate in and promote centralized, community, or household composting programs, if available, and carefully sort OW from other waste streams.
If no centralized composting system exists, work with local experts to establish household and community composting systems.
Help policymakers establish zero-waste and OW diversion goals; help incorporate them into local or national climate plans.
Start cooperatives that provide services and/or equipment for composting.
Participate in consultations with farmers, policymakers, businesses, and the public to determine where to place plants, how to use compost, pricing, and how to roll out programs.
Help gather data on local OW streams, potential markets, and comparisons of alternative uses such as methane digesters.
Help develop waste separation technology that enhances the quality of final compost products and/or improve educational programs on waste separation.
Develop innovative governance models for local composting programs; publicly document your experiences.
Work with farmers, local gardeners, the private sector, and local park systems to develop markets for compost.
Advocate for extended producer responsibility approaches that hold producers accountable for waste.
Advocate for laws or regulations that require waste separation as close to the source as possible, ensuring the rules are effective and practical.
Create demonstration projects to show the effectiveness and safety of finished compost.
Create, support, or join certification programs that verify the quality of compost.
Research various governance models for local composting programs and outline options for communities to consider.
Research and enact effective composting campaign strategies.
Create, support, or join certification programs that verify the quality of compost and/or verify food waste suppliers such as hotels, restaurants, and cafes.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)

Technologists and Researchers

Quantify estimates of OW both locally and globally; estimate the associated potential compost output.
Improve waste separation technology to improve the quality of finished compost.
Create tracking and monitoring software for OW streams, possible uses, markets, and pricing.
Research the application of AI and robotics for optimal uses of OW streams, separation, collection, distribution, and uses.
Research various governance models for local composting programs and outline options for communities to consider.
Research effective composting campaign strategies and how to encourage participation from individuals.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)

Communities, Households, and Individuals

Participate in and promote centralized composting programs, if available, and carefully sort OW from other waste.
If no centralized composting system exists, work with local experts to establish household and community composting systems.
Participate in consultations with farmers, policymakers, and businesses to determine where to place plants, how to use compost, pricing, and how to roll out programs.
Take advantage of educational programs, financial incentives, employee benefits, and other programs that facilitate composting.
Advocate for extended producer responsibility approaches that hold producers accountable for waste.
Advocate for laws or regulations that require waste separation, ensuring the rules are effective and practical.
Partner with schools, community gardens, farms, nonprofits, women’s groups, and other community organizations to promote composting and teach the importance of waste separation.
Create, support, or join certification programs that verify the quality of compost and/or verify food waste suppliers such as hotels, restaurants, and cafes.

Further information:

Container Based Sanitation Alliance
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)

Sources

Unlocking on-farm composting: key drivers in Mexico City's peri-urban areas. Cotler et al. (2025)
Composting and climate action plans: a guide for local solutions. Institute for Local Self-Reliance (2024)
Does exposure enhance interest? An analysis of composting exposure on interest in household waste management. Rahman et al. (2025)
How can public policy advance the composting industry? Truelove (2023)
CCET guideline series on intermediate municipal solid waste treatment technologies: composting. UNEP (2020)
Growing community-based composting programs in China. Xue et al. (2025)

Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness as a climate solution: High

Composting reduces OW, prevents pollution and GHG emissions from landfilled OW, and creates soil amendments that can reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers (Kaza et al., 2018; Manea et al., 2024). Although we do not quantify carbon sequestration from compost use in this analysis, a full life-cycle analysis that includes application could result in net negative emissions for composting (Morris et al., 2013).

Globally, the waste sector was responsible for an estimated 3.9% of total global GHG emissions in 2023, and solid waste management represented 36% of those emissions (IPCC, 2023; UNEP, 2024). Emissions estimates based on satellite and field measurements from landfills or direct measurements of carbon content in food waste can be significantly higher than IPCC Tier 1-based estimates. Reviews of global waste management estimated that food loss and food waste account for around 6% of global emissions or approximately 2.8 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Wilson et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2023). Facility-scale composting reduces emissions 38–84% relative to landfilling (Perez et al., 2023), and monitoring and managing the moisture content, aeration, and carbon to nitrogen ratios can further reduce emissions (Ayilara et al., 2020).

Unclear legislation and regulation for MSW composting can prevent adoption, and there is not a one-size-fits-all approach to composting (Cao et al., 2023). Regardless of the method used, composting converts OW into a nutrient-rich resource and typically reduces incoming waste volumes 40–60% in the process (Cao et al., 2023; Kaza et al., 2018). A comparative cost and energy analysis of MSW components highlighted that while composting adoption varies geographically and economically, environmental benefits also depend on geography and income (Zaman, 2016). Food and green waste percentages of MSW are higher in lower-resourced countries than in high-income countries due to less packaging, and more than one-third of waste in high-income countries is recovered through recycling and composting (Kaza et al., 2018).

The results presented in this document summarize findings from 22 reports, 31 reviews, 12 original studies, two books, nine web articles, one fact sheet, and three data sets reflecting the most recent evidence for more than 200 countries and territories.

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Appendix

Global MSW Generation and Disposal

Analysis of MSW in this section is based on the 2018 What a Waste 2.0 global dataset and report as well as the references cited in the report (Kaza et al., 2018; World Bank 2018). In 2018, approximately 2 Gt of waste was generated globally. Most of that went to landfills (41%) and open dumps (22%). Out of 217 countries and territories, 24 sent more than 80% of all MSW to landfills and 3 countries reported landfilling 100% of MSW. The average across all countries/territories was 28% of MSW disposed of in landfills. Both controlled and sanitary landfills with gas capture systems are included in the total landfilled percentage.

Approximately 13% of MSW was treated through recycling and 13% through incineration, but slightly more waste was incinerated than recycled per year. Incineration was predominately used in upper-middle and high-income countries with negligible amounts of waste incinerated in low- and lower-middle income countries.

Globally, only about 5% of MSW was composted and nearly no MSW was processed via methane digestion. However, OW made up nearly 40% of global MSW, so most OW was processed through landfilling, open dumping, and incineration all of which result in significant GHG emissions and pollution. There is ample opportunity to divert more OW from polluting disposal methods toward composting. Due to lack of data on open dumping, and since incineration only accounts for 1% of global GHG emissions, we chose landfilling as our baseline disposal method for comparison.

In addition to MSW, other waste streams include medical waste, e-waste, hazardous waste, and agricultural waste. Global agricultural waste generation in 2018 was more than double total MSW (Kaza et al., 2018). Although these specialized waste streams are treated separately from MSW, integrated waste management systems with high-quality source separation programs could supplement organic MSW with agricultural waste. Rather than being burned or composted on-farm, agricultural waste can provide bulking materials that are critical for maintaining moisture levels and nutrient balance in the compost pile, as well as scaling up composting operations.

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Details of a Composting System and Process

Successful centralized composting starts with collection and separation of OW from other waste streams, ideally at the source of waste generation. Financial and regulatory barriers can hinder creation or expansion of composting infrastructure. Composting systems require both facilities and robust collection networks to properly separate OW from nonbiodegradable MSW and transport OW to facilities. Mixed waste streams increase contamination risks with incoming feedstocks, so separation of waste materials at the source of generation is ideal.

Establishing OW collection presents a financial and logistical barrier to increased composting adoption (Kawai et al., 2020; Kaza et al., 2018). However, when considering a full cost-chain analysis that includes collection, transportation, and treatment, systems that rely on source-separated OW can be more cost-effective than facilities that process mixed organics.

OW and inorganic waste can also be sorted at facilities manually or mechanically with automated techniques including electromagnetic separation, ferrous metal separation, and sieving or screening (Kawai et al., 2020). Although separation can be highly labor-intensive, it’s necessary to remove potential contaminants, such as plastics, heavy metals, glass, and other nonbiodegradable or hazardous waste components (Kawai et al., 2020; Manea et al., 2024). After removing contaminants, organic materials are pre-processed and mixed to achieve the appropriate combination of water, oxygen, and solids for optimal aerobic conditions during the composting process.

Regardless of the specific composting method used, aerobic decomposition is achieved by monitoring and balancing key parameters within the compost pile. Key parameters are moisture content, temperature, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, aeration, pH, and porosity (Cao et al., 2023; Kawai et al., 2020; Manea et al., 2024). The aerobic decomposition process can be split into distinct stages based on whether mesophilic (active at 20–40 ^oC) or thermophilic (active at 40–70 ^oC) bacteria and fungi dominate. Compost piles are constructed to allow for sufficient aeration while optimizing moisture content (50–60%) and the initial carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (25:1–40:1), depending on composting method and feedstocks (Amuah et al., 2022; Manea et al, 2024). Optimal carbon-to-nitrogen ratios are achieved through appropriate mixing of carbon-rich “brown” materials, such as sawdust or dry leaves, with nitrogen-rich “green” materials, such as food waste or manure (Manea et al., 2024). During the thermophilic stage, temperatures exceeding 62 ^oC are necessary to kill most pathogens and weed seeds (Amuah et al., 2022; Ayilara et al., 2020).

Throughout the composting process key nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sodium), are mineralized and mobilized and microorganisms release GHGs and heat as by-products of their activity (Manea et al., 2024; Nordahl et al., 2023). Water is added iteratively to maintain moisture content and temperature in the optimal ranges, and frequent turning and aeration are necessary to ensure microorganisms have enough oxygen. Without the proper balance of oxygen and water, anaerobic conditions can lead to higher methane emissions (Amuah et al., 2022; Manea et al., 2024). Although CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide are released during the process, these emissions are significantly lower than associated emissions from landfilling (Ayilara et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2023; FAO, 2019; Perez et al., 2023).

Once aerobic decomposition is completed, compost goes through a maturation stage where nutrients are stabilized before finished compost can be sold or used as a soil amendment. In stable compost, microbial decomposition slows until nutrients no longer break down, but can be absorbed by plants. Longer maturation phases reduce the proportion of soluble nutrients that could potentially leach into soils.

The baseline waste management method of landfilling OW is cheaper than composting; however it also leads to significant annual GHG emissions. Composting, although more expensive due to higher labor and operating costs, reduces emissions and produces a valuable soil amendment. Establishing a composting program can have significant financial risks without an existing market for finished compost products (Bogner et al., 2007; Kawai et al., 2020; UNEP, 2024).

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Example Calculation of Achievable Adoption

In 2018, Austria had the highest composting rate of 31.2%, and Vietnam composted 15% of MSW (World Bank, 2018).

For low adoption, we assumed composting increases by 25% of the existing rate or until all OW in MSW is composted. In Austria, OW made up 31.4% of MSW in 2018, so the Adoption – Low composting rate was 31.4%. In Vietnam, the Adoption – Low composting rate came out to 18.75%, which is still less than the total OW percentage of MSW (61.9%).

For high adoption, we assumed that composting rates increase by 50% of the existing rate or until all OW in MSW is composted. So high adoption in Austria remains 31.4% (i.e., all OW generated in Austria is composted). In Vietnam, the high adoption composting rate increases to 22.5% but still doesn’t capture all OW generated (61.9% of MSW).

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Updated Date

Thu, 09/18/2025 - 12:00

Read more about Increase Centralized Composting

Deploy Alternative Insulation Materials

Submitted by Drawdown Admin on Sat, 02/15/2025 - 15:02

Sector

Industry, Materials & Waste

Mode

Cut Emissions

Cluster

Improve Materials

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Worker sprays insulation in building frame.

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Summary

Deploy Alternative Insulation Materials is defined as using alternative building insulation materials in place of conventional ones. In particular, we highlight the impact of using cellulose instead of glass, mineral, or plastic insulation in new and retrofit buildings. Cellulose insulation manufacture and installation emits fewer GHGs to reach the same operational insulating performance than does manufacture and installation of conventional materials.

Overview

Thermal insulation materials are used in the walls, roofs, and floors of buildings to help maintain comfortable indoor temperatures. However, manufacture and installation of insulation materials produces GHG emissions. These are called embodied emissions because they occur before the insulation is used in buildings. Insulation embodied emissions offset a portion of the positive climate impacts from using insulation to reduce heating and cooling demand. A Canadian study found that over 25% of residential embodied emissions from manufacturing building materials can be due to insulation (Magwood et al., 2022). Using cellulose insulation made primarily from recycled paper avoids some embodied emissions associated with conventional insulation.

Insulation is manufactured in many different forms, including continuous blankets or boards, loose fill, and sprayed foam (Types of Insulation, n.d.). Most conventional insulation materials are nonrenewable inorganic materials such as stone wool and fiberglass. These require high temperatures (>1,300 °C) to melt the raw ingredients, consuming thermal energy and releasing CO₂ from fossil fuel combustion or grid power generation (Schiavoni et al., 2016). Other common insulations are plastics, including expanded polystyrene (EPS), extruded polystyrene (XPS), polyurethane (PUR), and polyisocyanurate (PIR). Producing these plastics requires the extraction of fossil fuels – primarily petroleum – for feedstocks, as well as high amounts of energy for processing (Harvey, 2007).

F-gases are often used as blowing agents to manufacture rigid foam board insulation or install sprayed foam insulation. F-gases are GHGs with GWPs that can be hundreds or thousands of times higher than CO₂. High-GWP F-gases used in foam production are released into the atmosphere during all subsequent stages of the foam’s life cycle (Biswas et al., 2016; Waldman et al., 2023). The climate benefits of this solution during the installation stage are primarily due to avoiding these blowing agents.

Alternative insulation is produced from plant or animal biomass (bio-based materials) or waste products (recycled materials). Alternative insulation materials provide climate benefits by consuming less manufacturing energy, using renewable materials in place of fossil fuels, and eliminating high-GWP blowing agents (Sustainable Traditional Buildings Alliance, 2024).

Figure 1 compares a variety of conventional and alternative insulation materials. While many bio-based and recycled materials could be used as alternatives to these conventional materials, this solution focuses on cellulose due to its effectiveness in avoiding emissions, low cost, and wide availability. Cellulose insulation is made primarily from recycled paper fibers, newsprint, and cardboard. These products are made into fibers and blended with fire retardants to produce loose or batt cellulose insulation (Waldman et al., 2023; Wilson, 2021).

Figure 1. Properties and adoption of conventional and alternative insulation materials. Costs and emissions will vary from the values here depending on the insulation form (board, blanket, loose-fill, etc.).

Category	Material	High-GWP F-gases used?	Median manufacturing and installation emissions*	Mean product and installation cost**	Estimated market share (% by mass)
Conventional materials	Stone wool	No	0.31	623	20
	Glass wool (fiberglass)	No	0.29	508	34
	EPS	No	0.38	678	22
	XPS	Yes, sometimes	9.44	702	7
	PUR/PIR	Yes, sometimes	6.14	1,000	11
Alternative materials	Cellulose	No	0.05	441	2–13
	Cork	No	0.30	1,520	Commercially available, not widely used
	Wood fiber	No	0.13	814	Commercially available, not widely used
	Plant fibers (kenaf, hemp, jute)	No	0.18	467	Commercially available, not widely used
	Sheep’s wool	No	0.14	800	Commercially available, not widely used
	Recycled PET plastic	No	0.12	2,950	Commercially available, not widely used

*t CO₂‑eq (100-yr) to insulate 100m² to 1m²·K/W

**2023 US$ to insulate 100m² to 1m²·K/W. We use mean values for cost analysis to better capture the limited data and wide range of reported costs.

Although we are estimating the impact of using cellulose insulation in all buildings, the unique circumstances of each building are important when choosing the most appropriate insulation material. In this solution, we do not distinguish between residential and commercial buildings, retrofit or new construction, different building codes, or different climates, but these would be important areas of future study.

In this solution, the effectiveness, cost, and adoption are calculated over a specified area (100 m²) and thermal resistance (1 m²·K/W). The chosen adoption unit ensures that all data are for materials with the same insulating performance. Due to limited material information, we assumed that insulation mass scales linearly with thermal resistance.

To better understand the adoption unit, a one-story residential building of 130 m² floor area would require approximately 370 m² of insulation area (RSMeans, & The Gordian Group, 2023). For a cold climate like Helsinki, Finland, code requires insulation thermal resistance of 11 m²·K/W (The World Bank, n.d.). For a warm climate like Jerusalem, Israel, envelope thermal resistance requirements average 1.1 m²·K/W (The World Bank, n.d.). Therefore, depending on the location, anywhere from approximately 4–40 adoption units insulating 100 m² to 1 m²·K/W may be needed to insulate a small single-story home to the appropriate area and insulation level.

Take Action Intro

Would you like to help deploy alternative insulation? Below are some ways you can make a difference, depending on the roles you play in your professional or personal life.

These actions are meant to be starting points for involvement and may or may not be the most important, impactful, or doable actions you can take. We encourage you to explore, get creative, and take a step that is right for you!

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Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. (2016, October 15). Link to source: https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/2016/10/20161015%2003-23%20PM/Ch_XXVII-2.f-English%20and%20French.pdf

Andersen, B., & Rasmussen, T. V. (2025). Biobased building materials: Moisture characteristics and fungal susceptibility. Building and Environment, 112720. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.112720

Asdrubali, F., D’Alessandro, F., & Schiavoni, S. (2015). A review of unconventional sustainable building insulation materials. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 4, 1–17. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2015.05.002

Biswas, K., Shrestha, S. S., Bhandari, M. S., & Desjarlais, A. O. (2016). Insulation materials for commercial buildings in North America: An assessment of lifetime energy and environmental impacts. Energy and Buildings, 112, 256–269. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.12.013

Cabeza, L. F., Boquera, L., Chàfer, M., & Vérez, D. (2021). Embodied energy and embodied carbon of structural building materials: Worldwide progress and barriers through literature map analysis. Energy and Buildings, 231, 110612. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.110612

Carbon Removals Expert Group Technical Assistance. (2023, December). Review of certification methodologies for long-term biogenic carbon storage in buildings. European Commission. Link to source: https://climate.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-12/policy_carbon_expert_biogenic_carbon_storage_in_buildings_en.pdf

Deer et al. (2007). Alaska Residential Building Manual. Alaska Housing Finance Corporation. Link to source: https://www.ahfc.us/application/files/2813/5716/1325/building_manual.pdf

Esau et al. (2021). Reducing Embodied Carbon in Buildings: Low-Cost, High-Value Opportunities. RMI. Link to source: http://www.rmi.org/insight/reducing-embodied-carbon-in-buildings

The Freedonia Group. (2024). Global insulation report. Link to source: https://www.freedoniagroup.com/industry-study/global-insulation

Fabbri, M., Rapf, O., Kockat, J., Fernández Álvarez, X., Jankovic, I., & Sibileau, H. (2022). Putting a stop to energy waste: How building insulation can reduce fossil fuel imports and boost EU energy security. Buildings Performance Institute Europe. Link to source: https://www.bpie.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Putting-a-stop-to-energy-waste_Final.pdf

Forestry production and trade. (2023). [Dataset]. FAOSTAT. Link to source: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FO

Füchsl, S., Rheude, F., & Röder, H. (2022). Life cycle assessment (LCA) of thermal insulation materials: A critical review. Cleaner Materials, 5, 100119. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2022.100119

Gelowitz, M. D. C., & McArthur, J. J. (2017). Comparison of type III environmental product declarations for construction products: Material sourcing and harmonization evaluation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 157, 125–133. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.133

Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction, International Energy Agency, and the United Nations Environment Programme. (2020). GlobalABC roadmap for buildings and construction: Towards a zero-emission, efficient and resilient buildings and construction sector. International Energy Agency. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/globalabc-roadmap-for-buildings-and-construction-2020-2050

Grazieschi, G., Asdrubali, F., & Thomas, G. (2021). Embodied energy and carbon of building insulating materials: A critical review. Cleaner Environmental Systems, 2, 100032. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cesys.2021.100032

Harvey, L. D. D. (2007). Net climatic impact of solid foam insulation produced with halocarbon and non-halocarbon blowing agents. Building and Environment, 42(8), 2860–2879. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.10.028

Insulation choices revealed in new study. (2019, June 19). Home Innovation Research Labs. Link to source: https://www.homeinnovation.com/trends_and_reports/trends/insulation_choices_revealed_in_new_study

International Energy Agency. (2023). Building envelopes. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/energy-system/buildings/building-envelopes

International Energy Agency, International Renewable Energy Agency, & United Nations Climate Change High-Level Champions. (2023). Breakthrough agenda report 2023. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/breakthrough-agenda-report-2023

Jelle, B. P. (2011). Traditional, state-of-the-art and future thermal building insulation materials and solutions – Properties, requirements and possibilities. Energy and Buildings, 43(10), 2549–2563. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.05.015

Kumar, D., Alam, M., Zou, P. X. W., Sanjayan, J. G., & Memon, R. A. (2020). Comparative analysis of building insulation material properties and performance. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 131, 110038. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110038

Magwood et al. (2022). Emissions of materials benchmark assessment for residential construction report. Passive Buildings Canada and Builders for Climate Action.

Malhotra, A., & Schmidt, T. S. (2020). Accelerating Low-Carbon Innovation. Joule, 4(11), 2259–2267. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.09.004

Mályusz, L., & Pém, A. (2013). Prediction of the learning curve in roof insulation. Automation in Construction, 36, 191–195. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2013.04.004

Mapping energy efficiency: A global dataset on building code effectiveness and compliance: Country profiles. (n.d.). [Dataset]. The World Bank. Link to source: https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/buildinggreen/doc/building_green_country_profile.pdf

Maskell, D., Da Silva, C., Mower, K., Rana, C., Dengel, A., Ball, R., Ansell, M., Walker, P., & Shea, A. (2015, June 22). Properties of bio-based insulation materials and their potential impact on indoor air quality. First International Conference on Bio-based Building Materials, Clermont-Ferrand, France.

McGrath et al. (2023). Embodied carbon and material health in insulation. Healthy Building Network, Perkins&Will. Link to source: https://habitablefuture.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/96-Carbon-Health-Insulation.pdf

Naldzhiev, D., Mumovic, D., & Strlic, M. (2020). Polyurethane insulation and household products: A systematic review of their impact on indoor environmental quality. Building and Environment, 169, 106559. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106559

Northeast Bio-based Materials Collective 2023 summit proceedings. (2023). Link to source: https://massdesigngroup.org/sites/default/files/file/2024/Northeast%20Bio-Based%20Materials%20Collective%202023%20Summit%20Proceedings.pdf

Petcu et al. (2023). Research on thermal insulation performance and impact on indoor air quality of cellulose-based thermal insulation materials. Materials, 16(15), Article 15. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155458

Rabbat, C., Awad, S., Villot, A., Rollet, D., & Andrès, Y. (2022). Sustainability of biomass-based insulation materials in buildings: Current status in France, end-of-life projections and energy recovery potentials. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 156, 111962. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111962

Riverse. (2024, August). Methodology: Biobased construction materials. Link to source: https://www.riverse.io/methodologies/biobased-construction-materials

RSMeans, & The Gordian Group. (2023, September). Installed cost of residential siding comparative study – September 2023 [Report]. The Brick Industry Association. Link to source: https://www.gobrick.com/content/userfiles/files/RSMeans%20Residential%20Siding%20Comparative%20Cost%20Wall%20System%20Study%20Final%202023-09-15.pdf

SaravanaPrabhu et al. (2021). Comparative analysis of learning curve models on construction productivity of diaphragm wall and pile. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1197(1), 012004. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1197/1/012004

Schiavoni, S., D׳Alessandro, F., Bianchi, F., & Asdrubali, F. (2016). Insulation materials for the building sector: A review and comparative analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 62, 988–1011. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.045

Schulte, M., Lewandowski, I., Pude, R., & Wagner, M. (2021). Comparative life cycle assessment of bio-based insulation materials: Environmental and economic performances. GCB Bioenergy, 13(6), 979–998. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12825

Stamm et al. (2022). Chemical and environmental justice impacts in the life cycle of building insulation. Energy Efficiency for All, Healthy Building Network. Link to source: https://informed.habitablefuture.org/resources/research/20-chemical-and-environmental-justice-impacts-in-the-life-cycle-of-building-insulation-report-brief

Sustainable Traditional Buildings Alliance. (2024, March). The use of natural insulation materials in retrofit. Link to source: https://stbauk.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/The-use-of-natural-insulation-materials-in-retrofit.pdf

The World Bank. (n.d.). Mapping energy efficiency: A global dataset on building code effectiveness and compliance. Link to source: https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/buildinggreen/doc/building_green_main_findings.pdf

Types of insulation. (n.d.). U.S. Department of Energy. Link to source: https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/types-insulation

Waldman et al. (2023). 2023 Carbon Leadership Forum North American material baselines. Carbon Leadership Forum, University of Washington. Link to source: https://carbonleadershipforum.org/clf-material-baselines-2023/

Wang et al. (2023). Can paper waste be utilised as an insulation material in response to the current crisis. Sustainability, 15(22), Article 22. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215939

Wi, S., Kang, Y., Yang, S., Kim, Y. U., & Kim, S. (2021). Hazard evaluation of indoor environment based on long-term pollutant emission characteristics of building insulation materials: An empirical study. Environmental Pollution, 285, 117223. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117223

Wilson. (2021). The BuildingGreen guide to thermal insulation: What you need to know about performance, health, and environmental considerations. BuildingGreen, Inc.

Zabalza Bribián, I., Valero Capilla, A., & Aranda Usón, A. (2011). Life cycle assessment of building materials: Comparative analysis of energy and environmental impacts and evaluation of the eco-efficiency improvement potential. Building and Environment, 46(5), 1133–1140. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.12.002

Credits

Lead Fellow

Sarah Gleeson, Ph.D.

Contributors

Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.
James Gerber, Ph.D.
Yusuf Jameel, Ph.D.
Daniel Jasper
Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

Aiyana Bodi
Hannah Henkin
Ted Otte
Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.
Christina Swanson, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

To insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W using entirely cellulose insulation in place of the current baseline mix of insulation materials is expected to avoid 1.59 t CO₂‑eq on a 100-yr basis (Table 1). Since many of the avoided emissions are F-gases, the 20-yr effectiveness is higher, avoiding 4.07 t CO₂‑eq per unit of insulation. Effectiveness for this solution measures the one-time reduced emissions from manufacturing and installing insulation. Insulation also reduces the energy used while a building is operating, but those emissions are addressed separately in the Improve Building Envelopes solution.

Conventional insulation effectiveness was considered to be a weighted average effectiveness of the current baseline insulation mix, including a small amount of cellulose insulation currently in use.

The largest contributor to conventional insulation embodied emissions is using high-GWP blowing agents to manufacture or install XPS, PUR, or PIR foam. We assumed the use of F-gas blowing agents for all foams, although these are already being regulated out of use globally (Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, 2016) and an unknown amount of low-GWP blowing agents are currently used (such as hydrocarbons or CO₂). Therefore, we anticipate the effectiveness of this solution will decrease as F-gases are used less in the future. We assumed that 100% of blowing agents are emitted over the product lifetime.

Cellulose has the greatest avoided emissions of all of the alternative materials we evaluated (Figure 1). The next most effective materials were recycled PET, wood fibers, and sheep’s wool. Conventional materials like XPS, PUR, and PIR that are foamed with F-gases had the highest GHG emissions. For bio-based materials, we did not consider biogenic carbon as a source of carbon sequestration due to quantification and permanence concerns.

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Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /insulation required to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W, 100-yr basis

25th percentile	0.98
mean	1.34
median (50th percentile)	1.59
75th percentile	1.81

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Cost

Available cost data are variable for all materials, particularly those in early-stage commercialization. The mean cost of purchasing and installing cellulose insulation is less than that of any other conventional or alternative insulation material (Figure 1). Compared with the average cost of conventional insulation, the mean cost savings for cellulose insulation is US$193/100 m² insulated to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W. Since most buildings are insulated over greater areas to higher thermal resistances, these savings would quickly add up. When considering the mean cost per median climate impact, cellulose insulation saves US$121/t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis), making it an economically and environmentally beneficial alternative (Table 2).

We considered conventional insulation cost to be a weighted average cost of the current baseline insulation mix, including a small amount of cellulose insulation currently in use.

For conventional insulation, material costs of purchasing the insulation are higher than costs for installation (US$540 and US$97, respectively, to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W). Cellulose has a lower product cost and comparable installation costs to conventional materials. We considered all costs to be up front and not spread over the lifetime of the material or building. For each material type, cost will vary based on the form of the insulation (board, loose, etc.), and this should be accounted for when comparing insulation options for a particular building.

We determined net costs of insulation materials by adding the mean cost to purchase the product and the best estimation of installation costs based on available information. Installation costs were challenging to find data on and therefore represent broad assumptions of installation type and labor. Cost savings were determined by subtracting the weighted average net cost of conventional materials to the net cost of an alternative material. Although we used median values for other sections of this assessment, the spread of data was large for product cost estimates and the mean value was more appropriate in the expert judgment of our reviewers.

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Table 2. Cost per unit of climate impact.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq, 100-yr basis

estimate

-121

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Learning Curve

Little information is available about the learning rate for new insulation materials. Mályusz and Pém (2013) evaluated how labor time decreased with repetitive cycles for installing roof insulation. They found a learning rate of ~90%, but only for this specific insulation scenario, location, and material. Additionally, this study does not include any product or manufacturing costs that may decrease with scale.

In general, labor time for construction projects decreases with repetitive installation, including improved equipment and techniques and increased construction crew familiarity with the process (SaravanaPrabhu & Vidjeapriya, 2021). However, Malhotra and Schmidt (2020) classify building envelope retrofits as technologies that are highly customized based on user requirements, regulations, physical conditions, and building designs, likely leading to learning rates that are slow globally but where local expertise could reduce installation costs.

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Speed of Action

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Deploy Alternative Insulation Materials is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It has the potential to deliver a more rapid impact than gradual and delayed solutions. Because emergency brake solutions can deliver their climate benefits quickly, they can help accelerate our efforts to address dangerous levels of climate change. For this reason, they are a high priority.

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Caveats

Manufacturing and installation emissions reductions due to the use of alternative building thermal insulation materials are both permanent and additional.

Permanence

There is a low risk of the emissions reductions for this solution being reversed. By using cellulose insulation instead of inorganic or plastic-based insulation, a portion of the manufacturing and installation emissions are never generated in the first place, making this a permanent reduction. Emissions from high-temperature manufacturing, petroleum extraction, and blowing agent use are all reduced through this approach.

Additionality

The GHG emissions reductions from alternative insulation materials are additional because we calculated them relative to a baseline insulation case. This includes a small amount of cellulose materials included in baseline building insulation. Therefore, avoided emissions represent an improvement of the current emissions baseline that would have occurred in the absence of this solution.

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Current Adoption

Adoption data are extremely limited for alternative insulation materials. All adoption data and estimates are assumed to apply to both residential and commercial buildings, although in reality the uptake of alternative insulation materials will vary by building type due to differences in structures, climate, use type, and regulations. We assume that future uptake of alternative insulation is used only during retrofit or new construction, or when existing insulation is at the end of its functional lifetime.

European sources report that 2–13% of the insulation market is alternative materials. Depending on the source, this could include renewable materials, bio-based insulation, or recycled materials. In 2018 in the United States, 5% of total insulation area in new single-family homes was insulated with cellulose (Insulation Choices Revealed in New Study, 2019).

To convert estimated cellulose adoption percentage into annual insulation use, we estimated 26 Mt of all installed global insulation materials in 2023 based on a report from The Freedonia Group (2024). We calculated an annual use of approximately 1.7 billion insulation units of 100 m² at a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W. Therefore, the median cellulose adoption is 14 million units/yr at 100 m² at 1 m²·K/W, calculated from the median of the 2–13% adoption range.

Since this calculation is based on more alternative materials than just cellulose and is heavily reliant on European data where we assume adoption is higher, this estimate of current adoption (Table 3) is most likely an overestimate.

The little adoption data that were considered in this section are mostly for Europe, and some for the United States. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

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Table 3. Current (2017–2022) adoption level.

Unit: units of insulation/yr installed to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W

25th percentile	9000000
mean	13000000
median (50th percentile)	14000000
75th percentile	17000000

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Adoption Trend

Very few data are available that quantify adoption trends. In a regional study of several bio-based insulation materials, Rabbat et al. (2022) estimated French market annual growth rates of 4–10%, with cellulose estimated at 10%. Petcu et al. (2023) estimated the European adoption of recycled plastic and textile insulation, biomass fiber insulation, and waste-based insulation to have increased from 6% to 10% between 2012 and 2020.

When accounting for the calculated current adoption, these growth rates mean a median estimated annual increase of 500,000 insulation units/yr required to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W. The increasing adoption of bio-based insulation decreases the use of conventional insulation materials in those regions.

This adoption trend (Table 4) is likely an overestimate, as it is biased by high European market numbers and based on the likely high estimate we made for current adoption.

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Table 4. 2012–2020 adoption trend.

Unit: annual change in units of insulation/yr installed to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W

25th percentile	500000
mean	800000
median (50th percentile)	500000
75th percentile	1300000

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Adoption Ceiling

No estimates have been found for the adoption ceiling of this solution, although we expect it to be high given low rates of current adoption and projected increases in building construction in the coming decades (International Energy Agency [IEA], International Renewable Energy Agency, & United Nations Climate Change High-Level Champions, 2023). Two physical factors that could influence adoption are availability of alternative materials and thickness of insulation.

For cellulose insulation, availability does not seem to limit adoption. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2023) reports that there is a much higher annual production of cellulose-based materials (>300 Mt annually of cartonboard, newsprint, and recycled paper) than the overall demand for insulation globally (>25 Mt annual demand; Global Insulation Report, 2024). However, other uses for cellulose products may create competition for this supply.

Increased thickness of insulation could also be a limiting factor because this would reduce adoption by decreasing building square footage, in particular making retrofits more challenging and expensive. Deer et al. (2007) reported that the average cellulose thermal resistance is similar to mineral and glass wool, and lower than plastic insulations made of polystyrene and other foams. If we assume that 50% of plastic insulation cannot be replaced with cellulose due to thickness limitations, this would represent ~20% of current insulation that could not be replaced without structural changes to the building. Therefore, we calculated the adoption ceiling to be 80% of the current insulation that would be reasonably replaceable, or 140 million units/yr required to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W (Table 5).

Uptake of cellulose insulation could also be limited by its susceptibility to absorbing moisture, limiting its use in wet climates or structures that retain moisture, such as flat roofs. Commercialization of alternative insulation materials beyond cellulose and in many different forms (e.g., board, loose-fill) will increase the adoption ceiling across more building types.

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Table 5. Adoption ceiling.

Unit: units of insulation/yr installed to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W

25th percentile	N/A
mean	N/A
estimate	140000000
75th percentile	N/A

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Achievable Adoption

We found no estimates for feasible global adoption of this solution. Rabbat et al. (2022) estimated the adoption levels of several bio-based insulation materials in France in 2050. For cellulose wadding, this was estimated to be 2.1 times the commercialized volume in France in 2020. Although we do not expect France to be representative of the rest of the world, if the predicted adoption trend holds across the world then we expect low adoption in 2050 to be 2.1 times greater than 2023 adoption. This is 29 million units/yr to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W (Table 6).

The IEA (2023) claims that building envelopes need to have their retrofit rate increase by 2.5 times over the current rate in order to meet net zero targets (2023). This is a reasonable high-adoption scenario. Assuming that more retrofits of buildings occur and greater amounts of alternative insulation are installed in new buildings, we estimate that high future adoption of new insulation could occur at 2.5 times the rate of the low-adoption scenario. This is 73 million units/yr to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W (Table 6).

Adoption will be facilitated or limited by local regulations around the world. Building codes will determine the location and extent of use of cellulose or other bio-based insulation. We expect uptake to be different between residential and commercial buildings, but due to insufficient data, we have grouped them in our adoption estimates.

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Table 6. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: units of insulation/yr installed to insulate 100 m² to a thermal resistance of 1 m²·K/W

Current Adoption	14000000
Achievable – Low	29000000
Achievable – High	73000000
Adoption Ceiling	140000000

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The climate impacts for this solution are modest compared to current global GHG emissions. Not all conventional insulations have a high environmental impact due to the use of a wide range of materials, forms, and installation methods as well as the recent adoption of lower-GWP blowing agents. Therefore, the potential for further emissions savings is limited.

We quantified the effectiveness and adoption of cellulose insulation, which has the lowest emissions and, therefore, the highest climate impacts of the insulation materials we evaluated. With high adoption, 1.2 Gt CO₂‑eq on a 100-yr basis could be avoided over the next decade (Table 7).

While we only considered the adoption of cellulose insulation in this analysis, a realistic future for lowering the climate impact of insulation may include other bio-based materials, too. Utilizing a greater range of materials should increase adoption and climate impact due to more available forms, sources, and thermal resistance values of bio-based insulation.

Note that we calculated the current climate impact using a current materials baseline that includes a small fraction of cellulose. This means that the reported current adoption impact is a slight underestimate compared with the impacts for replacing entirely conventional insulation with the current amount of cellulose insulation in use.

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Table 7. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current Adoption	0.022
Achievable – High	0.046
Achievable – Low	0.12
Achievable Ceiling	0.22

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Additional Benefits

Income and Work

Some alternative insulations can be cheaper than conventional materials. Although there is large variation in evaluation methods and reported costs, our analysis found that cellulose and plant fibers are cheaper than conventional insulation materials such as stone wool, glass wool, and EPS (Figure 1). Depending on the applicable climate conditions and insulation form, switching to alternative insulation materials can result in cost savings for consumers, including homeowners and business owners.

Health

Conventional insulation materials may contribute to poor indoor air quality, especially during installation, and contribute to eye, skin, and lung irritation (Naldzhiev et al., 2020; Stamm et al., 2022; Wi et al., 2021). Additionally, off-gassing of flame retardants and other volatile organic compounds and by-products of conventional insulation can occur shortly after installation (Naldzhiev et al., 2020). Using bio-based alternative insulation products can minimize the health risks during and after installation (McGrath et al., 2023).

Water Resources

Although there is not a scientifically consistent approach to compare the environmental impacts of conventional and alternative insulation materials, a review analysis of 47 studies on insulation concluded that bio-based insulation materials generally have lower impacts as measured through acidification, eutrophication, and photochemical ozone creation potentials than do conventional materials (Füchsl et al., 2022). Other alternative materials such as wood fiber and miscanthus also tend to have a lower environmental footprint (Schulte et al., 2021). The water demand for wood and cellulose is significantly lower than that for EPS (about 2.8 and 20.8 l/kg respectively compared with 192.7 l/kg for EPS) (Zabalza Bribián et al., 2011). While the limited evidence suggests that the alternative material tends to be better environmentally, there is an urgent need to conduct life cycle assessments using a consistent approach to estimate the impact of these materials.

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Risks

Cellulose insulation is susceptible to water absorption, which can lead to mold growth in wet or humid environments (Andersen & Rasmussen, 2025; Petcu et al., 2023). Reducing this risk either requires an antifungal treatment for the material or limits adoption to particular climates. The thermal performance of cellulose insulation can decrease over time due to water absorption, settling, or temperature changes, but installing it as dense-packed or damp-spray can alleviate this problem (Wang & Wang, 2023; Wilson, 2021).

Bio-based insulation materials tend to be combustible, meaning they contribute more to the spread of a fire than non-combustible stone or glass insulation. Some bio-based materials are classified as having minimal contribution to a fire, such as some cellulose forms, rice husk, and flax (Kumar et al., 2020). These materials are less likely to contribute to a fire than very combustible plastic insulation such as EPS, XPS, and PUR. Fire codes – as well as other building and energy codes – could limit adoption, risking a lack of solution uptake due to regulatory setbacks (Northeast Bio-Based Materials Collective 2023 Summit Proceedings, 2023).

Additives such as fire retardants and anti-fungal agents are added to bio-based insulation along with synthetic binders, which can lead to indoor air pollution from organic compounds, although likely in low concentrations (Maskell et al., 2015; Rabbat et al., 2022).

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Interactions with Other Solutions

Reinforcing

Upgrading insulation to lower-cost and lower-emitting alternative materials should increase the adoption of other building envelope solutions as they can be installed simultaneously to optimize cost and performance.

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Increasing the manufacturing of cellulose insulation, which contains large amounts of recycled paper, could increase the revenues for paper recycling.

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Increase Recycling

Competing

The use of biomass as raw material for insulation will reduce the availability and increase the cost of using it for other applications. For cellulose, global production of cellulose materials (>300 Mt annually of cartonboard, newsprint, and recycled paper (Forestry Production and Trade, 2023) is an order of magnitude higher than the demand for insulation materials (>25 Mt annual demand (The Freedonia Group, 2024), so the overall impact should be small.

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Reducing the demand for conventional insulation products and instead making insulation that produces fewer GHGs during manufacturing would slightly reduce the global climate impact of other industrial manufacturing solutions. This is because less energy overall would be used for manufacturing, and therefore other technologies for emissions reductions would be less impactful for insulation production.

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Dashboard

Solution Basics

Adoption Unit

insulation units of 100 m² and 1 m²·K/W

Effectiveness

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit

00.981.59

Adoption

units/yr

Current 1.4×10⁷ 02.9×10⁷7.3×10⁷

Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Emissions Avoided

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr

Current 0.022 0.0460.12

Cost

US$ per t CO₂-eq

-121

Speed of Action

Emergency Brake

Climate Pollutants Mitigated

CO₂, F-gas

Trade-offs

Bio-based insulation materials including cellulose often have lower thermal resistance than some conventional insulation materials. In particular, bio-based materials may require a thicker layer than plastic insulation to reach the same insulating performance (Esau et al., 2021; Rabbat et al., 2022). Usable floor area within a building would need to be sacrificed to accommodate thicker insulation, which would potentially depreciate the structure or impact the aesthetic value (Jelle, 2011). This would be a more significant trade-off for retrofit construction and buildings in densely developed urban areas.

Sourcing bio-based materials has environmental trade-offs that come from cultivating biomass, such as increased land use, fertilizer production, and pesticide application (Schulte et al., 2021). Using waste or recycled materials could minimize these impacts. Binders and flame-retardants may also be required in the final product, leading to more processing and material use (Sustainable Traditional Buildings Alliance, 2024).

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Maps Introduction

The effectiveness of deploying alternative insulation is not inherently dependent on geographic factors since it addresses emissions embodied in the manufacture and deployment of insulation materials. However, due to a lack of related data, we assumed a consistent global breakdown of currently used insulation materials when in reality, the exact mix of insulation currently used in different geographic locations will affect the emissions impact of switching to alternative materials.

Building insulation is used in higher quantities in cold or hot climates, so deploying alternative insulation is more likely to be relevant and adopted in such climates. Other geographic factors also impact adoption: Areas with higher rates of new construction will be better able to design for cellulose or other alternative insulation materials, and drier climates will face a lower risk of mold growth on these materials. Local building codes, including fire codes, can also affect the adoption of alternative materials.

There are no maps for the Deploy Alternative Insulation Materials solution. It is intended to address emissions embodied in the manufacture and deployment of insulation materials and has no intrinsic dependence on geographic factors.

Action Word

Deploy

Solution Title

Alternative Insulation Materials

Classification

Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Enact comprehensive policy plans that utilize all levers, including financial incentives, improved building and fire code regulations, and educational programs to advance the transition to alternative insulation.
Create government procurement policies that become stricter over time and mandate the use of alternative insulation or implement GWP limits in government buildings.
Update insulation installation regulations to encourage more sustainable practices and materials.
Offer financial incentives such as subsidies, tax credits, and grants for manufacturers, start-ups, and alternative insulation installers.
Remove financial and regulatory incentives for conventional insulation.
Create and enforce embodied carbon disclosure requirements for new commercial construction.
Create energy efficiency standards that periodically increase for insulation materials and buildings.
Regulate demolition of old buildings to require proper disposal of conventional insulation to ensure emissions are avoided and gases are destroyed.
Create reference standards for the performance and properties of alternative insulation materials.
Invest in R&D to improve alternative insulation materials’ manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
Create green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for alternative insulation.
Offer educational resources, one-stop shops for retrofitting and weatherization, installation demonstrations, and tours of model builds for commercial and private developers, highlighting the cost savings, environmental benefits, and health benefits of alternative insulation.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Practitioners

Finance or develop only new construction and retrofits that use alternative insulation and other low-carbon practices.
Take advantage of financial incentives such as subsidies, tax credits, and grants for installing alternative insulation.
Seek or negotiate preferential loan agreements for developers using alternative insulation and other climate-friendly practices.
Whenever possible, install insulation that does not use F-gas blowing agents.
During demolition, ensure proper disposal of conventional insulation to avoid emissions and destroy residual F-gases.
Integrate alternative insulation materials into construction databases, listing prices, and environmental benefits.
Enact company policies that disclose embodied carbon of commercial construction.
Create new contractual terms that require embodied emissions data from materials and methods from suppliers.
Advocate for financial incentives, improved building and fire codes, and educational programs for alternative insulation.
Use educational resources, one-stop shops for retrofitting and weatherization, installation demonstrations, and tours of model builds.
Conduct research to improve alternative insulation materials’ manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for alternative insulation.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Business Leaders

Finance only new construction and retrofits that utilize alternative insulation and other low-carbon practices.
Expand product lines to include alternative insulation materials.
Integrate alternative insulation materials into construction databases, listing prices and environmental benefits.
Create new contractual terms that require embodied emissions data from materials and methods.
Invest in R&D to improve alternative insulation materials’ manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
Advocate for financial incentives, improved building and fire codes, and educational programs for alternative insulation.
Join green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for alternative insulation.
Create long-term purchasing agreements with alternative insulation manufacturers to support stable demand and improve economies of scale.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Nonprofit Leaders

Advocate for financial incentives, improved building and fire codes, and educational programs for alternative insulation.
Conduct research to improve alternative insulation materials’ manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
Offer educational resources, one-stop shops for retrofitting and weatherization, installation demonstrations, and tours of model builds for commercial and private developers, highlighting the cost savings and environmental benefits of alternative insulation.
Create, join, or administer green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for alternative insulation.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Investors

Finance only new construction and retrofits that utilize alternative insulation and other low-carbon practices.
Invest in R&D and start-ups to improve alternative insulation materials’ manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
Issue green bonds to invest in projects that use alternative insulation.
Offer preferential loan agreements for developers utilizing alternative insulation and other climate-friendly practices.
Create new contractual terms that require embodied emissions data from materials and methods.
Join green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for alternative insulation.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Finance only new construction and retrofits that utilize alternative insulation and other low-carbon practices.
Offer grants for developers using alternative insulation and other climate-friendly practices.
Create financing programs for private construction in low-income or under-resourced communities.
Create new contractual terms that require embodied emissions data from materials and methods.
Advocate for financial incentives, improved building and fire codes, and educational programs for alternative insulation.
Fund research to improve alternative insulation materials’ manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
Offer educational resources, one-stop shops for retrofitting and weatherization, installation demonstrations, and tours of model builds for commercial and private developers, highlighting the cost savings and environmental benefits of alternative insulation.
Create or join green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for alternative insulation.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Thought Leaders

Advocate for financial incentives, improved building and fire codes, and educational programs for alternative insulation.
Conduct research to improve alternative insulation materials’ manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
Offer or amplify educational resources, one-stop shops for retrofitting and weatherization, installation demonstrations, and tours of model builds for commercial and private developers, highlighting the cost savings and environmental benefits of alternative insulation.
Create, join, or administer green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for alternative insulation.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Technologists and Researchers

Develop and improve existing alternative insulation materials or innovate new materials with enhanced insulation performance.
Investigate ways to increase the durability of alternative insulation, such as resistance to moisture, pests, and fire.
Find uses for recycled materials in alternative insulation and ways to improve the circular economy.
Innovate new manufacturing methods that reduce electricity use and emissions.
Design new application systems for alternative insulation that can be done without much additional training or licensing/certification.
Create new methods of disposal for conventional insulation during demolitions.
Research adoption rates of alternative insulation materials across regions and environments.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Communities, Households, and Individuals

Finance or develop only new construction and retrofits that utilize alternative insulation and other low-carbon practices.
Take advantage of financial incentives such as subsidies, tax credits, and grants for installing alternative insulation.
Whenever possible, install insulation that does not use F-gas blowing agents.
Advocate for financial incentives, improved building and fire codes, and educational programs for alternative insulation.
Conduct local research to improve alternative insulation materials’ manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
Organize local “green home tours” and open houses to showcase climate-friendly builds and foster demand by highlighting cost savings and environmental benefits of alternative insulation.
Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for alternative insulation.
Capture community feedback and share it with local policymakers to address barriers such as permitting logistics or upfront costs, helping to share policies that drive adoption.

Further information:

Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)

Sources

EU tighten up legislation on F-gas and ozone depleting substances. Barbour Consolidated (2024)
Biomass. Building Materials and the Climate (2022)
Putting a stop to energy waste: How building insulation can reduce fossil fuel imports and boost eu energy security. Buildings Performance Institute Europe (2022)
Advanced insulation materials for building envelopes. Buildings Performance Institute Europe (2016)
Strategies for promoting green building technologies adoption in the construction industry—an international study. Chan et al. (2017)
Modeling thermal insulation investment choice in the EU via a behaviourally informed agent-based model. Chersoni et al. (2022)
Reducing embodied carbon in buildings: Low-cost, high-value opportunities. Esau et al. (2021)
Building envelopes. IEA (2023)
Selected EU policies and initiatives impacting the transition of the construction sector. Jacquemont et al. (2024)
Study on policy marking of passive level insulation standards for non-residential buildings in South Korea. Kim et al. (2018)
The role of policy instruments in supporting the development of mineral wool insulation in Germany, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Kiss et al. (2013)
Accelerating low-carbon innovation. Malhotra et al. (2020)
The need for comprehensive and well-targeted instrument mixes to stimulate energy transitions: The case of energy efficiency policy. Rosenow et al. (2017)
Understanding the dynamics of sustainability transitions: the home insulation program. Smoleniec (2017)
Embodied carbon. Urban Land Institute (n.d.)
Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council et al. (2019)
Industry experts’ perspectives on the difficulties and opportunities of the integration of bio-based insulation materials in the european construction sector. Zerari et al. (2024)

Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing building sector emissions: Mixed

There is scientific consensus that using building insulation with lower embodied emissions will reduce GHG emissions, but expert opinions about the magnitude of possible emissions reductions as well as the accuracy of determining these reductions are mixed.

Biswas et al. (2016) determined that, for insulation, avoided emissions from reduced heating and cooling energy tend to outweigh the embodied emissions. However, others emphasize that as buildings become more energy-efficient, material embodied emissions become a larger factor in their carbon footprint (Cabeza et al., 2021; Grazieschi et al., 2021). Embodied emissions from insulation can be substantial: Esau et al. (2021) analyzed a mixed-use multifamily building and found that selecting low-embodied-carbon insulation could reduce building embodied emissions by 16% at no cost premium.

Multiple studies have found that some sustainable insulation materials have lower manufacturing emissions than traditional insulation materials (Asdrubali et al., 2015; Füchsl et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2020; Schiavoni et al., 2016). However, researchers have highlighted the difficulty in evaluating environmental performance of different insulation materials (Cabeza et al., 2021; Grazieschi et al., 2021). Gelowitz and McArthur (2017) found that construction product Environmental Product Declarations contain many errors and discrepancies due to self-contradictory or missing data. Füschl et al. (2022) conducted a meta-analysis and cautioned that “it does not appear that a definitive ranking [of insulation materials] can be drawn from the literature.” In our analysis, we attempted to compare climate impact between materials, but we acknowledge that this can come from flawed and inconsistent data.

Despite the difficulties in comparing materials, there is high consensus that cellulose is a strong low-emissions insulation option due to its low embodied carbon, high recycled content, and good thermal insulating performance (Wilson, 2021).

The results presented in this document summarize findings from four reviews and meta-analyses, 14 original studies, three reports, 27 Environmental Product Declarations, and two commercial websites reflecting current evidence from eight countries as well as data representing global, North American, or European insulation materials. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

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Updated Date

Fri, 09/12/2025 - 12:00

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